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1,"18 Editions of the Dewey Decimal Classifications The present study is a history of the DEWEY Decimal Classification. The first edition of the DDC was published in 1876, the eighteenth edition in 1971, and future editions will continue to appear as needed. In spite of the DDC's long and healthy life, however, its full story has never been told. There have been biographies of Dewey that briefly describe his system, but this is the first attempt to provide a detailed history of the work that more than any other has spurred the growth of librarianship in this country and abroad."
2,"Use Made of Technical Libraries This report is an analysis of 6300 acts of use in 104 technical libraries in the United Kingdom. Library use is only one aspect of the wider pattern of information use. Information transfer in libraries is restricted to the use of documents. It takes no account of documents used outside the library, still less of information transferred orally from person to person. The library acts as a channel in only a proportion of the situations in which information is transferred. Taking technical information transfer as a whole, there is no doubt that this proportion is not the major one. There are users of technical information - particularly in technology rather than science - who visit libraries rarely if at all, relying on desk collections of handbooks, current periodicals and personal contact with their colleagues and with people in other organizations. Even regular library users also receive information in other ways."
3,"Two Kinds of Power An Essay on Bibliographic Control The relationships between the organization and control of writings and the organization and control of knowledge and information will inevitably enter our story, for writings contain, along with much else, a great deal of mankind's stock of knowledge and information. Bibliographical control is a form of power, and if knowledge itself is a form of power, as the familiar slogan claims, bibliographical control is in a certain sense power over power, power to obtain the knowledge recorded in written form. As writings are not simply, and not in any simple way, storehouses of knowledge, we cannot satisfactorily discuss bibliographical control as simply control over the knowledge and information contained in writings."
4,"Systems Analysis of a University Library; final report and research project The establishment of nine new universities in the 1960's provoked a highly stimulating re-examination of the nature, purpose and management of academic libraries. Long-established attitudes and methods were questioned, but although changes were made, the basic difficulty remained - a lack of objective information about the best ways of providing a library service in a university. The report of the UGC Committee on Libraries (the Parry Repot [267]), which, in general, endorsed these changes, also stressed the need for research into all aspects of academic library provision."
5,"A Library Management Game: a report on a research project Although the use of games in professional education has become widespread only during the last decade, the method has been used in a number of fields for many hundreds of years. Its origins have been traced to simple war games, used in military training when the ""real thing"" was either unavailable or too dangerous. In more recent times, these games have become more and more sophisticated, and many now use large electronic computers to handle the complex calculations involved. Since 1956, when the first well-developed management game was introduced, the technique has spread rapidly into a wide variety of disciplines and today it is used at all levels of education, from primary school classes to courses for experienced professional men and women. One of the main causes of this ""game explosion"" has been the rapid development of sophisticated management techniques, such as simulation and mathematical modelling, which have been made possible by rapid advances in computer technology."
6,"Abstracting Concepts and Methods Graduate library school study of abstracting should be more than a how-to-do-it course. It should include general material on the characteristcs and types of abstracts, the historical development of abstracting publications, the abstract-publishing industry (especially in the United States), and the need for standards in the preparation and evaluation of the product. These topics we call concepts.   The text includes a methods section containing instructions for writing various types of abstracts, and for editing and preparing abstracting publications. These detailed instructions are supplemented by examples and exercises in the appendix. There is a brief discussion of indexing of abstract publications.   Research on automation has been treated extensively in this work, for we believe that the topic deserves greater emphasis than it has received in the past. Computer use is becoming increasingly important in all aspects of librarianship. Much research effort has been expended on the preparation and evaluation of computer-prepared abstracts and extracts. Students, librarians, and abstractors will benefit from knowing about this research and understanding how computer programs were researched to analyze text, select key sentences, and prepare extracts and abstracts. The benefits of this research are discussed.   Abstracting is a key segment of the information industry. Opportunities are available for both full-time professionals and part-time or volunteer workers. Many librarians find such activities pleasant and rewarding, for they know they are contributing to the more effective use of stored information. One chapter is devoted to career opportunities for abstractors."
7,"Academic Library Buildings A Guide to Architectural Issues and Solutions This book attempts to present representative examples of successful architectural solutions to the important problems librarians and architects face in planning new college and university library buildings or in remodeling and enlarging existing structures. It does not attempt to make case study evaluations, as was done by Ellsworth Mason for Brown and Yale. Nor does it present examples of unsuccessful solutions except to show how to avoid mistakes, and in these cases the libraries will not be identified."
8,"The Academic Library Essays in Honor of Guy R. Lyle As important for staff members' individual development as was the apprenticeship in administration, perhaps the most significant attitude one acquired while working for Guy was engendered by his insistence that librarians must be interested in and knowledgeable about the content of the materials with which they dealt. His love of literature, his respect for scholarship, his admiration for good writing and reading were manifested in many ways, but most notably in his admonition that, though we were primarily a research library, we must constantly keep in mind our obligation to collect contemporary poetry, fiction and belles-letters. It was primarily up to the library staff, he felt, to be responsible for these as well as for ""general"" books which crossed disciplinary lines or fell between the disciplines, those books which a faculty mostly concerned with research materials is apt to overlook. And in building this portion of the collection, ""there is no substitute for a thorough acquaintance with books through a reading of critical reviews and the books themselves."" This counsel is from The President, the Professor, and the College Library, but the importance of its thrust--the need to keep up with the world of books and publishing--was continually impressed upon us."
9,"Access to Libraries in College This study assumed that an additional use study held less promise than an analytical consideration of concepts. The basic approach was a survey comparing traditional and current professional ideas on direct access. Principal data-gathering instruments were documentary analysis and opinion questionnaire.   Findings of the documentary analysis included the following:   Research from 1890 to 1970 on the direct shelf approach and browsing left the problems largely unresolved and evidently resistant to established methods of use and user research. The need for an exhaustive study of concepts was confirmed.   Open shelf libraries--organized through shelf classification and relative location--were meant to arouse the intellectual, social, and political interest of the average citizen and affect his democratic self-realization.   Definitions of ""browsing"" varied greatly: self-indulgence by the untutored in objectionable works; beneficial self-education for the general reader; valuable guidance for the scholar in his research."
10,"Access to Periodical Resources The purpose of this study was to develop, evaluate, and recommend a national plan for improving access to periodical resources. About 48 percent of all academic interlibrary loans are for periodical materials, with the bulk of the loans being satisfied in the form of photocopies. A major consideration in the long-range improvement of the interlibrary loan system is the possible augmentation with a national system for acquiring, storing, and satisfying loan requests for periodical materials.      This study focused on the physical access to the periodical literature. Based on the needs of the library community, design features were developed, and included the following:      Service should be made available to all users      without any restriction other than access      through a library.      Initially, the service should be confined primarily      to rapid, dependable delivery of photocopies of      journal articles.      The collection of a center should be comprehensive      in subject coverage excluding only medicine.      All worthwhile journals should be collected      irrespective of language."
11,"The Acquisition of Library Materials The scope of acquisitions work, outlined in the Introduction, acknowledges the importance of selection policy, serials recording, and other topics kindred to acquisitions. These topics are discussed in this book only as they relate to obtaining library materials. They are examined thoroughly in books and papers that are cited in the references and the bibliographic note.  Centralized acquisitions and automation of order routines are of major importance in order work and they are reviewed as chapters in this book. These chapters are introductions to the concepts and problems of centralization and automation, not manuals of practice. For treatment of these topics in particular and in depth the reader is referred to the references cited. For automation these references are only a modest selection from an enormous literature."
12,"Acquisition from the 3rd World The Ligue des bibliotheques europeennes de recherche (LIBER) was set up in 1971 as an international non-governmental organization, with the aim of establishing close collaboration between the general research libraries of Western Europe, particularly national and university libraries, and in particular to help in finding practical ways of improving the quality of the services these libraries provide.  At the second meeting of its General Assembly, held in Luxembourg in 1972, LIBER decided to hold a seminar on the acquisition of materials from the 'Third World'; and I was charged with the 'intellectual organization' of this seminar. The purpose of the meeting would be to examine the problems of acquisition; the availability of materials in European libraries both for reference and for lending; and the feasibility of setting up a European centre for the collection of such material, to be available for loan. The provision of bibliographic information, preferable in machine-readable form, was to be a basic consideration, whatever means were proposed for acquiring publications from those areas. The Council of Europe made a generous grant towards the cost of the seminar which was held at the University of Sussex from 17 to 19 September 1973."
13,"AD695049 I am not, nor have I ever pretended to be, an expert on microfiche. Nevertheless, when I was invited to address the Third Annual Northeastern DDC/Industry Users Conference in Waltham, Massachusetts in April of 1968 I had the temerity to attempt to describe what I as a user would like to have in a fiche reader. (""Towards a Uniform Federal Report Numbering System and a Cuddly Microfiche Reader--Two Modest Proposals."" Revised September 1968. AD-669204)"
14,"The Administration of the College Library If this book has a central thesis, it rests upon the simple but frequently neglected principle that college library service goes beyond the commonly accepted functions of book circulation and storage. The college library exists, not merely to house and circulate library materials, but to supplement and extend the teaching process with reference service, to afford faculty members library opportunities for improving instruction, and to encourage students to read more and better books. Administration is essentially a service activity, a tool through which library functions are more fully and efficiently realized.  The present work retains most of the material of the first edition, but includes substantial revision in each chapter. The book was planned not only as a text in the teaching of college library administration but also for independent professional reading. Because readers have found the footnotes and chapter bibliographies useful for reference purposes, they have been brought up to date and in some cases extended."
15,"Information Flow in Research and Development Laboratories Technical communication patterns in two research and development laboratories were examined using modified sociometric techniques.. The structure of technical communication networks in the two laboratories results from the interaction of both social relations and work structure.. The sociometric ""stars"" in the technical communication network who provide other members of the organization with information either make greater use of individuals outside the organization or read the literature more than other members of the laboratory.."
16,"Adopting the Library of Congress Classification System This manual is designed to make it possible for any library to change efficiently to the Library of Congress Classification system. Detailed procedures are outlined which may serve as exact models or as a series of suggested steps which have proven effective in actual use. Most of the text deals with the necessary criteria for effecting the planning, making the preparations, selecting the tools, and establishing the procedures which are essential for a reclassification project. Beyond this, considerable attention has been given to many of the problem areas of the LC Classification-series, biography, bibliography, law, PZ3 and PZ4. In addition, the literature Tables VIIIa and IXa, two of the most frequently used tables throughout the entire class system, have been thoroughly explained and their application illustrated by a series of comprehensive examples. Since the mechanics, production, and cost of catalogue card copy can significantly affect the flow of books to users, a chapter has been devoted to describing the use of Xerox copying machines in library operations. Finally, an annotated bibliography of books and articles judged to be helpful in deciding to reclassify is included for those readers who wish to delve more deeply into the tortuous and frustrating 50-year history of the concept of centralized cataloging and classification. The numbers enclosed in parentheses throughout the text refer to sources in the bibliography which relate to or support the arguments being advanced in any particular case."
17,"Adventures in Librarianship There has long been a need for a continuing series to provide scholarly reviews of the rapidly changing and advancing field of librarianship, a series which would select subjects with particular current significance to the profession and provide an analysis of the advances made through research and practice. Advances in Librarianship is planned and designed to fill this need. It will present critical articles and surveys based on the published literature, research in progress, and developments in libraries of all types.  Mechanization may appear to be the most obvious of the advancing fronts of librarianship, for automation has caught the enthusiastic support of all librarians who can visualize its potential. Advances in this field will certainly be found in every volume of this series. As the first group of articles in this volume demonstrate, technological change has an obvious and direct implication for libraries, but the problem has been found to be much more complex than the simple inventory problem many experts expected. Advances in Librarianship is dedicated to presenting the realities of automation, assessing where we are, where we are going, and how fast we can hope to get there. ""The Machine and Cataloging"" reviews the current status of the machine-produced book catalog and what lies ahead as we enter the age of MARC. Where business methods have greater applicability, progress is easier, as reported in ""Mechanization of Acquisition Processes."" Even in this area generally acceptable practices and standardization are in the future, not the past. One of the problems of major and immediate importance in computerization of catalog information is that discussed in ""Filing Systems for Computer Manipulation."" This detailed review presents the complexity of the problems and suggests possible solutions.  For many years technical service costs have been defended without adequate knowledge of the facts. As automated procedures are proposed, standards are determining costs of traditional operations become essential. The article on standards for such costs shows why the problems have been difficult and reviews the significant advances of the past few years.  The school library has widened its dimensions in materials and services much more rapidly than other libraries, as reflected in its new name, the instructional media center. Here, technical change, together with new teaching methods, has made possible major developments in library service in schools as well as for children in the public library. Two articles make clear that what can be done has been demonstrated, and that what remains is to make this the rule rather than the exception.  Bibliotherapy is an example of a field in which progress has been slow.  Articles which illustrate the potential which systems theory and managerial planning theory have for libraries. The articles on the application of these concepts, which come from research in administration, are provocative and may appear controversial to some.  The article on library development in developing countries provides an analysis in depth of our efforts and degree of success in assisting other countries in providing the library service which is so important in the modern world."
18,"Selective Dissemination of Information The present contribution does not duplicate previous studies but complements the earlier publications and closes the few gaps that exist in the literature prior to 1966 and after 1971. Additionally, it is a bold attempt to evaluate critically and objectively the history of the mechanized selective dissemination of information (SDI) as reflected in the literature, from the initial description by Luhn (1958, 1961b, c) to the post-1970 period when the SDI boom began losing ground to the more popular on-line interactive systems. The review therefore questions and interprets the concept of SDI, its implementation, and its evolution in the light of work performed by many companies, government agencies, universities, societies, and libraries during the last fourteen years."
19,"Adventures in Theory of Languages In trying to give an account of the statistical properties of language, one is faced with the problem of having to find the common thread which would show the many and multifarious forms of language statistics - embodied in scattered papers written by linguists, philosophers, mathematicians, engineers, each using his own professional idiom as belonging to one great whole: quantitative linguistics.  The book stresses the peculiarity of statistics of language structure as against just conventional statistics. To put the difference between two types of statistics briefly, the latter comprises the methods and parameters of general number statistics as applied, e.g., in Economics and Demography, the former has its own methods and characterising parameters, particularly useful for describing and evaluating language structure. The idea of statistical linguistics as using concepts and methods of its own, which was adumbrated in the author's ""Language as choice and Chance"", 1956, has now taken definite shape.  Of this development I shall try to give a brief account. In my book, ""Language as Choice and Chance"", the foundation was laid for a truly sensible application of statistics to language by my interpretation of the langue-parole dichotomy as being essentially that between statistical universe and sample."
20,"The Age of Jewett: Charles Coffin Jewett and American Librarianship 1841-1868 Most librarians mark the beginning of modern librarianship from the founding of the American Library Association in 1876 and the appearance on the national library scene of such dynamic and controversial figures as Melvil Dewey and Charles Ammi Cutter.   But in doing so, they overlook an extremely significant era in the history of our profession, for the quarter century preceding the 1876 meeting in Philadelphia was one characterized by great advances in the field of American librarianship. This period of growth was to have considerable influence on the course of library development in America after 1876. To ignore the third quarter of the nineteenth century is to risk misinterpreting the pivotal post-1876 era, and in this time of reappraisal, it seems particularly appropriate and useful to focus our attention on the years preceding the founding of the American Library Association."
21,"On Aggression In this book, Lorenz deals with the evolution of aggression in vertebrates. He points out that aggressivity is totally different from predation: that it is a biological necessity for defence of territory and for a cornered animal, and that it becomes mixed up with other innate drives, thus leading up towards reduction of intraspecific damage. This, be it noted, is most evident in fiercer social predators like wolves, where escape from the pack is virtually impossible and where co-operation without fighting is necessary for survival; whereas in the non-social but proverbially peaceful dove prevention of escape leads to violent and often fatal attacks on the weaker mate.  In a final chapter he advances some suggestion as to how in the human species, where evolution is primarily cultural, and not guided by Darwinian selection in the strict sense, the aggressive drive may be canalized into less dangerous channels. Man has innumerable ways of adaptively ritualizing his behavior, many of them analogous, if not homologous, to those found in animals. In any event, On Aggression is a fascinating book by a master of his subject."
22,"Education and Manpower for Librarians This paper is not an official policy statement of the American Library Association nor of the Office for Library Education. It is simply an exploration, an outline of possibilities for consideration by the profession. Its purpose is to generate discussion that will lead eventually to a statement of Association policy that the profession will support and make effective.  A basic assumption on which the statement rests is this: that the library occupation is much broader than that segment of it which is the library profession, but that the professional segment has responsibility for the definition and supervision of the training and education required by the complete range of activities encompassed by the occupation. Librarians are not the only persons who work in libraries, but librarians are the ones who are concerned with the advancement and improvement of the library profession. It follows then that it is the obligation of the professionals to engage actively in the establishment and maintenance of standards and norms governing the preparation of people who work at any level in libraries. They should define and guide the kinds of preparation most useful at the pre-professional level and not merely the education of those who will hold positions at the level we now call ""professional."""
23,Pilot Inventory of Library Holdings This project was undertaken because of the high degree of uncertainty among the library staff regarding the extent of the problem of missing books. The findings of this study gave the Ohio State University libraries concrete evidence as to how many books are missing and indicated the areas in which book losses are the greatest. These figures also provide information which can be conveyed to the faculty or administration when they voice complaints about the unavailability of library books. The areas where losses are high also tend to indicate the areas of most frequent use.
24,"Libraries and Technological Forces Affecting Them 1. What do we mean by technology and what kind of technological forces are we concerned with? 2. Why is it important to be concerned with technology in thinking about the future of libraries? 3. What kinds of technology are particularly important for libraries? 4. How can this technology be applied today? 5. What can we foresee for the future, as we move toward the year 2000? 6. What, if anything, should we do tomorrow to try to get from here to here?"
25,"Algebraic Systems As far back as the 1920's, algebra had been accepted as the science studying the properties of sets on which there is defined a particular system of operations. However up until the forties the overwhelming majority of algebraists were investigating merely a few kinds of algebraic structures. These were primarily groups, rings and lattices. The first general theoretical work dealing with arbitrary sets with arbitrary operations is due to G. Birkhoff (1935). During these same years, A. Tarski published an important paper in which he formulated the basic principles of a theory of sets equipped with a system of relations. Such sets are now called models. In contrast to algebra, model theory made abundant use of the apparatus of mathematical logic. The possibility of making fruitful use of logic not only to study universal algebras but also the more classical parts of algebra such as group theory was discovered by the author in 1936.  During the next twenty-five years, it gradually became clear that the theory of universal algebras and model theory are very intimately related despite a certain difference in the nature of their problems. And it is therefore meaningful to speak of a single theory of algebraic systems dealing with sets on which there is defined a series of operations and relations (algebraic systems). The formal apparatus of the theory is the language of the so-called applied predicate calculus. Thus the theory can be considered to border on logic and algebra."
26,"Indexing and Abstracting by Association This article discusses the possibility of exploiting the statistics of word co-occurrence in text for purposes of document retrieval. Co-occurrence is defined and related to the mental processes of authors and readers; several means of quantitative measurement of word co-occurrence are then scrutinized. It is shown that the most strongly co-occurring word pairs, which are therefore ""associated"" in a statistical sense, can be represented in the form of an ""association map."" The last half of the article presents two modes of use of association maps in literature searching."
27,"Cost Analysis and Simulation Procedures for the Evaluation of Large Information Systems A computer program has been written and used which simulates the several-year operation of an information system and computes estimates of the expected operating costs as well as the amount of equipment and personnel required during that time period. The program has been used for the analysis of several large systems and has proven itself to be a useful research tool for the study of systems with so many components and interrelated operations that an equivalent manual analysis would be extremely cumbersome and time consuming,and perhaps even impractical. This paper describes this program and shows, as an example, some of the results of a simulation of two of several suggested designs for a specific information system."
28,"A Note on the Pseudo-Mathematics of Relevance Recently a number of articles, books, and reports dealing with information systems, i.e., document retrieval systems, have advanced the doctrine that such systems are to be evaluated in terms of the degree or percentage of relevancy they provide.  Although there seems to be little agreement on what relevance means, and some doubt that it is quantifiable, there is, nevertheless, a growing agreement that a fixed and formal relationship exists between the relevance and the recall performance of any system. Thus, we will find in the literature both a frankly subjective notion of relevance as reported by individual users, and equations, curves, and mathematical formulations which presumably provide numerical measures of the recall and relevance characteristics of information systems. This phenomenon of shifting back and forth from an admittedly subjective and non-mathematical term to equations in which the same term is given a mathematical value or a mathematical definition has its ancient parallel in discussions of probability. One cannot, of course, legislate the meaning of a term. It all depends, as Alice pointed out, on ""who is master,"" the user or the term. On the other hand, the use of a single term in the same document to cover two or more distinct meanings, especially when such a usage is designed to secure the acceptance of a doctrine by attributing to it mathematical validity which it does not have, represents a more serious situation than merely careless ambiguity."
29,"Some Questions Concerning ""Information Need"" The expression ""satisfying a requester's information need"" is often used, but its meaning is obscure. The literature on ""information need"" in relation to retrieval suggests three different (though not inconsistent) possible interpretations. However, each of these interpretations is itself fundamentally unclear. The various obscurities involved are indicated by critical questions, which those who write of information need are invited to answer."
30,"Vocabulary Building and Control Techniques The rationale is given for creation and maintainance by an information center of a controlled indexing and retrieval vocabulary.. Basic vocabulary principles are (1) use of natural language, (2) development of hospitality to new concepts, (3) provision of adequate cross-referencing, and (4) formatting for easy use.. Terminalogical conventions necessary for development and control of a useful vocabulary are summarized, and the techniques for applying these conventions to construct a thesaurus are described.. Computerized editing techniques and updating techniques are briefly set forth.."
31,"Attendance and Use of the Science Library at M.I.T. This is an interim report on continuing studies of library operations at Massachusetts Institute of Technology being made by members of the Institute's Operations Research Project in cooperation with the librarians and library staff. In this report, which is based on actual observations of on-the-premise use made of the Science Library, various statistics measuring the kind, degree, and intensity of use are tabulated. In addition there are some suggested measures of effectiveness of the library. A unique outcome of the survey has been the construction and verification of a mathematical model employing probability theory to measure rate and kind of use of library material together with length of stay of library patrons. Such models, characteristic of an operations research approach, give promise of furthering the goal of effective library management and planning."
32,"Information Gathering Patterns and Creativity A study of research chemists in an industrial research laboratory A comparison of creative and ""noncreative"" research chemists with respect to the ways in which they use their professional and technical literature.. The creative chemists differ from the ""noncreative"" in that the former read more technical literature on the job, are less reluctant to use literature of greater reading difficulty, are less influenced in their independence of thought, read more extensively and consult more frequently the older material, are more inquisitive and have broader cultural interests.. The findings of the study are believed to be helpful in planning library and information services, in refining future inquiries into the ways in which scientists use recorded information, and in improving tests for the identification of creative ability among chemists.."
33,"The ""Half-Life"" of Some Scientific and Technical Literatures A consideration of the analogy between the half-life of radioactive substances and the rate of obsolescence of scientific literature.. The validity of this analogy suggest the possibility of more accurate prognostications concerning the period of time during which scientific literature may by used and hence might help to guide the planning of library collections and technical information services.."
34,Keyword-In-Context Index for Technical Literature (KWIC Index) A distinction is made between bibliographical indexes for new and past literature based on the willingness of the user to trade perfection for currency.. Indexes giving keywords in their context are proposed as suitable for disseminating new information.. These can be entirely machine-generated and hence kept up-to-date with the current literature.. A compatible coding scheme to identify the indexed documents is also proposed.. In it elements are automatically extracted from the usual identifiers of the document so that the coded identifier yields a maximum of information while remaining susceptible to normal methods of ordering..
35,"Comparisons of Four Types of Lexical Indicators of Content An experiment was conducted to determine which of four types of lexical indicators of content could be utilized best by subjects to determine relevant from irrelevant documents and to answer a set of 100 questions. The results indicate that there were no major differences between the groups using complete text and abstracts to select relevant documents, but the group utilizing the complete text obtained a significantly higher score on the examination."
36,"Recorded Use of Books in the Yale Medical Library Explores the amount of use of books by categories of borrowers in the Yale Medical Library, with a view to discovering the proportion of the catalogue which should be put in machinable form."
37,"The World's Technical Journal Literature: An Estimate of Volume, Origin, Language, Field, Indexing, and Abstracting A quantitative estimate is made of the magnitude of the world's scientific and technical journal literature problem. Using a number of basic sources of statistical information, a composite picture is established to show such things as the total volume, linguistic and national origins, breakdown by subject field, and degree of coverage by the abstracting and indexing services."
38,"Machinelike Indexing by People A study of several thousand entries in a classified bibliography of article titles (the Index Medicus) revealed that a large proportion of the title entries contained words identical to or synonymous with words of the corresponding subject heading. It is inferred that a major part of the bibliography studied could have been compiled by a machine procedure operating on titles alone, provided the machine was supplied with a suitable synonym dictionary."
39,Bibliographic Coupling Between Scientific Papers This report describes the results of automatic processing of a large number of scientific papers according to a rigorously defined criterion of coupling. The population of papers under study was ordered into groups that satisfy the stated criterion of interrelation. An examination of the papers that constitute the groups shows a high degree of logical correlation.
40,"Worldwide Census of Scientific and Technical Serials Results of the census of the world's scientific and technical serial literature, within the limits defined and based on an examination of published source material from countries throughout the world, reflect a total title population much lower than estimated before.. Distribution of this population by country, showing better than 50% of the total divided among six major countries, is included and discussed, together with a broad subject distribution of serials for certain countries.."
41,"New Factors in the Evaluation of Scientific Literature Through Citation Indexing More than one million citations from the scientific literature have been processed by the Citation Index Project at the Institute for Scientific Information.. The Project, sponsored by NSF and NIH, will be described briefly, and new methods of using citation data for evaluation of publications will be discussed..  Summaries of statistical data, compiled by computer methods such as the following, will be given..  1. Frequency of citation of one journal by another..  2. Frequency of current citations to the past literature..  3. Frequency of self-citation by journals and authors..  4. Number of source citations per cited paper..  5. Number of references per source paper..  6. Number of papers published per journal.."
42,"The Notion of Relevance Analysis of the problems of defining the mutual relevancies of queries and document-collections indicates that they essentially involve the problem of conceptual relatedness.. In order to consider the later problem, the question of concept-formation is first discussed, which in turn requires a definition of concept.. An extensional interpretation is suggested whereby a concept is associated with a class of conceptually-similar documents.. Users' similarity- judgments then provide the empirical data for formal definitions of concept and conceptual relatedness.. It is found, however, that certain very general difficulties rule out the possibility of defining concepts and their relatedness by the method proposed.. Since this method is based on human relevance-judgments, it seems a natural one to adopt, so that its collapse has serious practical and theoretical consequences.. An alternative approach is therefore proposed whose elaboration will form Part II of this article.."
43,"The Consistency of Human Judgments of Relevance A comparison of the ability of humans to consistently judge the relevance of documents to their general interests from bases of citations, abstracts, keywords, and total text was made under controlled experimental conditions.. The results showed that 1) humans are able to make such judgments consistently, and 2) the consistency of the judgment is independent of the particular base from which it is made.. Apparent inconsistency arising from judgments made on the basis of abstracts remains unexplained.. This experiment, as well as others concerned with human evaluations of text material, leave unexplored the basic problem of providing a metric scale on which such evaluations can be measured.."
44,"The Distribution of Term Usage in Manipulative Indexes A semi-empirical correlation, based on data from nine indexes, permits the prediction of the percentage of terms in a manipulative index vocabulary which will be used to index any given number of documents.. This is a function of the total number of index entries in the system.. A log-normal relationship, similar to Zipf's Law, exists between total index entries and distribution of term usage.. Based upon the correlation, optimum vocabulary size and growth rate can inferred, as well as the most efficient arrangement of index entries in a storage medium.. The results agree well with published data and appear to be particularly useful for designers of mechanized retrieval or publication operations.."
45,"Measuring the Reliability of Subject Classification by Men and Machines Procedures for measuring the consistency of document classification are described.. Three subject specialists classified 997 abstracts of psychological reports into one of eleven categories.. These abstracts were also mechanically classified by a computer program using a factor score computational procedure.. Each abstract was scored for all categories and assigned to the one with the highest score.. The three manual classifications were compared with each other and with the mechanical classifications, and a series of contingency coefficients was computed.. The average reliability of manual classification procedures was equal to .870.. The correlation between automatic and manual classification was .766.."
46,"A Quantitative Measure of User Circulation Requirements and Its Possible Effect on Stack Thinning and Multiple Copy Determination The strategy outlined in this article describes a possible aid to the librarian for thinning a library's stack according to the criterion of user needs.. The method uses the last circulation date as a parameter of user circulation requirements.. The resulting stack collection would, by design, satisfy over 99 percent of the user circulation requirements and yet be of minimum size.. Preliminary, but not yet fully validated research, indicates that the number of volumes in a library's holdings may be reduced by 60 to 70 percent and yet satisfy well over 99 percent of the user requirements.. It may also be possible to determine which books should have multiple copies in order that user disappointment can be minimized.. The effective result of this approach is that there now may be a quantitative method of maintaining the library's holdings at a reasonable level and, in addition, a reduction in the disappointment of the user who is unable to find the book he wants because of use by another.."
47,"Improvement of the Selectivity of Citation Indexes to Science Literature Through Inclusion of Citation Relationship Indicators Citation indexes to large bodies of science literature can often list far more citing references under the known cited reference than the user can afford the time to look up.. By providing some additional information, beyond the minimal association of the citing reference with the cited reference, a citation index could provide the means of the user to select from a long list those citing references which are most relevant to his immediate search requirement.. Means of providing this selectivity are discussed.. Particular attention is given to the possibility of adding short codes to the citation entries which would be informative of the way in which the citing publication is operationally related to the cited one (this method is an integral feature of the Shepard's legal citations).. A scheme of citation relationships of potential value to users of science literature is presented.. These relationships were tested on a sampling of physics literature.. The suggested categories include indicators of the relation of the citing reference to the scientific process in general, as well as indicators of its relationship to the cited reference in particular.. Assignment of the categories to a citation requires the exercise of judgment, as in subject indexing, but does not involve the use of subject terminology.. An illustration is provided of the application from a citation index to physics literature.."
48,"The Norms of Citation Behavior: Prolegomena to the Footnote The publication explosion has focused renewed attention on the lowly footnote.. While we are all at least partially aware of the technical functions of the citation for both the writer and the reader of the scientific paper, little is known about the norms operating in actual practice.. Even less is known about the operating norms with respect to the more sociological functions, including the acknowledgement of intellectual debts or the conferral of recognition upon the works of others.. This paper reviews the state of our knowledge, raises questions, and proposes suggestions and hypotheses for studying the relationships between footnoting practices among scientists and the social system of science.."
49,"Adaptive Information Dissemination Computer dissemination of information offers significant advantages over manual dissemination because the computer can use strategies that are impractical and in some cases impossible for a human.. This paper describes the Ames Laboratory Selective Dissemination of Information system with emphasis on the effectiveness of user feedback.. The system will accept any document, abstract, keyword, etc., in a KWIC or Science Citation Index Source format.. User profiles consist of words or word clusters each with an initially assigned significance value.. These values are used in making the decision to notify a user that he may be interested in a particular document.. According to responses, the significance values are increased or decreased and quickly attain an equilibrium which accurately describes the user's interests.. The system is economical compared to other existing SDI systems and human intervention is negligible except for adding and deleting profile entries.."
50,Comparison of the Results of Bibliographic Coupling and Analytic Subject Indexing A detailed comparison of how 334 papers in Volume 112 of Physical Review form related groups according to two criteria of relatedness.. The criteria are: (1) the Analytic Subject Index as used by the editors of the Physical Review; and (2) the method of Bibliographic Coupling.. The similarities and differences between the groups thus formed are illustrated and discussed..
51,"An Experiment in Automatic Indexing This report describes a method of indexing documents which is based on the assumptions, (1) that a subset of the words in a document can be an effective index to that document, and (2) that this subject can be approximated by selecting those words from the document whose frequencies are statistically unexpectedly high.. The results of the experiment are encouraging, although not definitive because any index set chosen must be tested by using it for retrieval from a large collection.."
52,"Comparative Indexing: Terms Supplied by Biomedical Authors and by Document Titles The original aim of this study was to obtain objective data bearing on the much argued question of whether author indexing is ""good"".. Author indexing of 285 documents reporting biomedical research was scored by comparing the author- supplied terms (author set) for each paper with a criterion set of terms that was established by asking a group of 12 potential users to describe the same document.. Terms in the document title (title set) were scored similarly.. The average author set contained almost half of all the terms employed by more than one member of the user group and scored 73% of the maximal possible score, as compared with 44% for the average title set.. When judged by the method and criterion employed here, author indexing is substantially better than indexing derived from document titles.. The findings suggest that indicia supplied by an author should serve scientists in biomedical disciplines other than his own about as well as they serve his disciplinary colleagues.. The general method developed for measuring indexing quality may represent a practical yardstick of wide applicability.."
53,"The KWIC Index Concept: A Retrospective View This paper defines and describes the KWIC (keyword in context) index concept, providing a history of the concept and of its literature.. It discusses variations of the index, such as the Bell Telephone Index, KWOC indexes, and the WADEX..  The paper discusses improvements and variations to the KWIC index, such as manipulation of the index line, variations of the code, addition of classification information, combination of author index and title index, and improvements to the preparation of the KWIC indexes, such as improvement of titles and use of a thesaurus, and discusses improvement of the use of the KWIC index.. The paper discusses the usage of the KWIC index and comments on the future of KWIC indexes of the KWIC concept.."
54,Simulation of Boolean Logic Constraints Through the Use of Term Weights The evolution described below of one aspect of the NASA system and Technical Information Facility's machine search system may be of general interest to the documentation profession.
55,Bradford's Law and the Keenan-Atherton Data Bradford's methods are applied to the Keenan-Atherton data. The results do not fit Bradford's Law.
56,"Computer-Produced Micro-Library Catalog The philosophy, production, and cost-effectiveness of a computer-generated library catalog is described. This catalog is unique in that it utilizes direct computer to microfilm composition techniques, employing the Stromberg Carlson 4020. Cost, user acceptance, and by-product capabilities are stressed."
57,Distribution of Indexing Terms for Maximum Efficiency  of Information Transmission A function was developed for the optimum distribution of indexing terms by the number of postings.. This makes it possible to transmit information with maximum efficiency.. The comparison of the actual distribution of the term groups with the calculated optimum distribution provides an objective measure for evaluating any indexing system with respect to its efficiency as information transmission channel..
58,"Relevance Disagreements and Unclear Request Forms Disagreements about the relevance of documents to retrieval requests occur because relevance judges differently interpret requests of documents.. Requests may be differently interpreted because they are unclear.. Well-known types of request obscurity are reviewed.. Less well known is that a request may be unclear because its form - ""documents about subject S"", ""document answering question Q"", etc. - is unclear..   Explications are developed of the meanings of the request forms just given and several others.. A request of any of the forms discussed is interpreted to be for documents which support statements of a specified kind in a specified way.. Examples are given which suggest that some, perhaps all, ""about S"" requests are unclear.. Some ways of formulating clear question requests are given..  Various ways in which documents may support statements are distinguished.. These depend on on such factors as parts of a document use, inference strength, and background knowledge permitted.. Some possible clear support specifications are indicated.."
59,"Opinion Paper Although a large number of Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI) Systems have been planned, implemented, and tested over the past few years, insufficient attention has been given to the collection and interpretation of important data needed for evaluation.. We describe some of the defects common to almost all of the reported systems, single out one recent report for detailed discussion and argue in favor of collection and correct interpretation of data on one important and frequently overlooked evaluation factor.."
60,"Information Science: What Is It? In seeking a new sense of identity, we ask, in this article, the question: What is information science? What does the information science do? Tentative answers to these questions are given in the hope of simulating discussion that will help clarify the nature of our field and our work.."
61,"Expected Search Length: A Single Measure of Retrieval Effectiveness Based on the Work Ordering Action of Retrieval Systems A measure of document retrieval system performance called the ""expected search length reduction factor"" is defined and compared with indicators, such as precision and recall, that have been suggested by other workers.. The new measure is based on calculations of the expected number of irrelevant documents in the collection which would have to be searched through before the desired number of relevant documents could be found.. Its advantages are: (1) it provides a single index of the property it attempts to measure; (2) it allows for gradations of retrieval status, through the mathematical concept of a ""weak ordering""; (3) it evaluates retrieval performance relative to random searching; and (4) it takes into account the amount of relevant material desired by the requester.."
62,"A Literature Search and File Organization Model A principle of sequential optimization in search theory distributes the search effort at each stage so as to maximize the probability of target detection with the effort expended thus far.. As an application of this principle to the search of pertinent items in a literature file, the file items should be arranged in decreasing order of the probability that an item will yield the information sought.. Complete ordering in this manner may not be feasible, and it is proposed that the files be partially ordered in search zones with some loss in search efficiency.. A model for assessing the relative efficiency for partial ordering is developed and used to determine optimal zone sizes under an assumed target distribution pattern.. In this way, trade-off between file organization effort and search effort can be meaningfully evaluated.. A representative target distribution function for search literature appears to follow the Bradford law of scattering.. This function is used to demonstrate the application of the model over a meaningful range of parameters obtained from empirical studies.. It is shown that a good two-zone search plan to scientific literature is one in which 15-20% of the most useful documents are examined first.. Only about one of three searches should have to go on to a search over the remainder of the file.."
63,"The Publication Inflation The much-vaunted information explosion seems to be the manifestation of a rather generalized publication inflation.. Multipublication and pretentious writing have become obstacles to ""communication between human minds"". To counteract their harmful effects it will be necessary to reduce the quantity and improve the quality of the printed records by filtering the material before it is stored for retrieval.."
64,"A Computer-Based Serials Control System for a Large Biomedical Library Rather than reiterate the obvious purposes and procedures involved in creating a computer system for control of serials, in this paper the author deals with the concept upon which the UCLA system is based and the manner in which the system is maintained in day-to-day operations of the UCLA Biomedical Library.. The paper deals with some of the points made in an earlier publication from the UCLA serials project.. The attempt is to show how the theory of publication pattern (discussed in the earlier article) has been used to produce a different idea in computer control of serials.. Publication pattern information which is entered into the master record for each title causes check-in cards for the next expected issue of each title to be generated by the computer, regardless of when this text issue is expected - next week, next month, next year.. This is departure from most systems, which attempt to predict a certain number of issues which should arrive during a given time period.. The information, which must be a part of the computer record, is described, as are library procedures in maintaining the system.."
65,"A Study of Searching the Eye Research Literature The paper is a report of most of the major findings of a study in searching the periodical eye research literature.. Questions were collected from eye researchers and a selected group of these were searched in nine different secondary sources.. Articles thought to be relevant were Xeroxed and sent to the eye researchers who subsequently rated the articles.. Articles of eye research interest are found in a wide variety of journals, but a small number of journals carry a large proportion of the articles judged valuable by the eye researchers.. Approximately a fourth of eye research articles are in foreign languages.. Translations are not readily available.. Despite a delay of more than 15 month between the original appearance of article in journals and the mailing of photocopies, about half of the articles of interest to the researchers were not known to them previously.. For extensive retrospective searches more than one secondary service must be used.. Index Medicus and Excerpta Medica (Section 12) or Ophthalmic Literature would be good sources.. MEDLARS demand searches were not shown to be clearly superior to manual searches of Index Medicus.. Titles, abstracts, and full text were shown to be equally effective in permitting searches to retrieve references that were subsequently rated as relevant by the researchers.. A searcher with a background in ophthalmology was able to retrieve more articles of research interest than other non-ophthalmologist searchers.."
66,"Psychology and Information An aspect of the human use of information that has generally been overlooked in the automation in information services is the human tendency to locate information spatially.. Computer-based systems do not necessarily assign any unique role to spatial tags, and so a feature of considerable importance for the organization of the user's memory seems to have been largely overlooked.. The spatial dimension of human memory is discussed, and some suggestions are offered for exploiting it more effectively in the context of information retrieval services.."
67,The Use of Simulation in Studying Information Storage and Retrieval Systems Previous applications of simulation to information storage and retrieval systems (ISRS) have been overly restrictive in their scope and have failed to consider the environment within which such systems operate.. This paper considers the ISRS as a subsystem within a larger system which includes the users and the funders of the retrieval system.. The three components form a closed-loop information feedback system in which user response influences both the funding and operation of the ISRS as it attempts to satisfy user needs within a finite budget allocation.. Reward-cost theory provides the basis for describing user behavior.. An industrial dynamics model has been developed to simulate ISRS/user/funder behavior where a university departmental library is the ISRS component.. The results which such an analysis can produce are discussed..
68,"Retrieval of Answer-Providing Documents (I) Better understanding of subject document retrieval might result if different functions of subject document retrieval system are studied separately.. This paper is concerned with retrieval of documents, in response to a question, from which answers to that question can be inferred (""answer-providing documents"").. ""Answer can be inferred from document"" has many possible meanings, one of which must be selected (an ""inference specification"").. Inasmuch as scientists in a field disagree about the correctness of inferences, have somewhat different background knowledge, etc., any inference specification can only approximate scientific inference practices.. Two sources of systematic knowledge of document-statement inference practices in a scientific field are described.. (II) If a content word occurs in a question, then it occurs in any answer to that question (with some apparently tractable exceptions).. An indexing procedure based on that fact is described which would permit retrieval of all answer-providing documents for a question.. However, because the indexing is ""nonrelational"", it could cause false retrievals as well.. Various ways of dealing with such false retrievals are  briefly indicated, and a study is sketched that would provide data for helping selection among them.. Two special point concerning indexing for retrieval of answer-providing documents are discussed separately.."
69,Statistical Generation of a Technical Vocabulary The results of an experiment in the use of statistical techniques for extracting a technical vocabulary from document texts are presented and discussed..
70,"On Understanding User Choices: Textual Correlates of Relevance Judgements An empirical investigation of the role of documents in relevance judgements is reported.. Abstracts previously judged relevant, partially relevant, and nonrelevant to each of 61 questions were compared to see whether textual differences could be found which might reasonably account for the rating differences.. The results of this comparison were fairly clear-cut characterizations in each case of relevant and partially relevant abstracts.. These characterizations were found to be expressible largely as meaningful co-occurrences of terms closely related to the question.. It is suggested that the textual bases of user choices may be more understandable than has been supposed.."
71,"Word-Word Associations in Document Retrieval Systems The SMART automatic document retrieval system is used to study association procedures for automatic content analysis.. The effect of word frequency and other parameters on the association process is investigated through examination of related pairs and through retrieval experiments.. Associated pairs of words usually reflect localized word meanings, and true synonyms cannot readily be found from first or second order relationships in our document collections.. There is little overlap between word relationships found through associations and those used in thesaurus construction, and the effects of word associations and a thesaurus in retrieval are independent.. The use of associations in retrieval experiments improves not only recall, by permitting new matches between requests and documents, but also precision, by reinforcing existing matches.. In our experiments, the precision effect is responsible for most of the improvement possible with associations.. A properly constructed thesaurus, however, offers better performance than statistical association methods.."
72,"A Comparison Between Manual and Automatic Indexing Methods The effectiveness of conventional document indexing is compared with that achievable by fully automatic text processing methods.. Evaluation results are given for a comparison between the MEDLARS search system used at the National Library of Medicine and the experimental SMART system, and conclusions are reached concerning the design of future automatic information systems.."
73,Effectiveness of Information Retrieval Methods Results of some 50 different retrieval methods applied in three experimental retrieval systems were subjected to the analysis suggested by statistical decision theory.. The analysis validates a previously-proposed measure of effectiveness and demonstrates its several desirable properties.. The examination of a wide range of data in relation to this one metric provides a clear and general assessment of the current state of the retrieval art..
74,Managerial Cost Accounting for a Technical Information Center The purpose of this paper is to describe a research project conducted at a technical center to test the hypothesis that: A theoretically-sound managerial cost-accounting system can be designed to meet the specific characteristics of a technical information center by revising and innovating systems utilized by other enterprises.. A computerized cost system was developed and operated for a three-month period to test this hypothesis.. The results of the study indicate that effective managerial cost accounting is possible for a technical information center.. Relevant cost information was generated periodically to measure the operating performance of the center's production process.. A summary of the data that were reported regularly to management is presented in this paper..
75,"MEDLARS: Report on the Evaluation of Its Operating Efficiency A comprehensive program to evaluate the performance of MEDLARS was conducted by the National Library of Medicine in 1966 and 1967.. This report describes the methodology used and presents a summary of the principal results, conclusions, and recommendations.."
76,"Biomedical Literature: Analysis of Journal Articles  Collected by a Radiation- and Cell-Biologist The author's journal reference cards for 1965 and 1966 were analyzed according to three ""interest patterns"": (I) the total collection of 1469 article titles, a ""potentially useful"" set; (II) a subset concerning only his research speciality; and (III) a subset of articles defined as ""useful"". For each pattern, journals were ranked by frequency of use and a scatter diagram was drawn..  Patterns I and II largely resembled patterns obtained by counting citations in basic journals or by counting publications of selected researchers.. Pattern III was more widely scattered.. It is concluded that access to diverse journals is needed by researchers to supply new ideas, and that this diversity of reading is not reflected adequately by citation counting or other indirect means..  Current Contents, used by the author for current-awareness purposes in building his card file, generated 88% of all articles.. Scatter diagrams indicated the decreased scatter predicted from its use..  The 30% most important journals in this collection, including about 80% of titles, are ranked for each pattern.."
77,The Effectiveness of Automatically Generated Weights and  Links in Mechanical Indexing Work concerned with the statistical evaluation of the output of the MEDICO automatic indexing method is described.. The statistical test were designed primarily to examine the validity of the assumptions which formed the basis of the algorithms developed for the automatic computation of weights and for the automatic generation of links between index terms and modifiers.. This evaluation also includes a comparison of the output generated from full text and from the processing of the abstracts or summaries of the same articles..
78,"On-Line Access to Information: NSF as an Aid to the Indexer/Cataloger When adding a document to a collection, an indexer should choose a representation which makes evident both the content of the document and its relation to other documents already in the collection.. Toward this end, the Negotiated Search Facility (NSF) makes possible indexer-controlled retrieval of information from a collection data base using tools beyond those available in a traditional bibliographic catalog.. The design philosophy of NSF is to offer a framework to guide the indexer while allowing him freedom to retrieve any data which he judges will help him make indexing decisions.. An example which indicates how an indexer might use the facility also shows how the display formats and command language promote interaction.. While the discussion is directed toward indexing, it should be clear that the facility would be equally useful to the searcher.."
79,"Computer Selection of Keywords Using Word-Frequency Analysis A statistically based method for automatically identifying keywords in machine-readable text has been developed which produces keyword lists that agree better with composite lists produced by panels of human indexers than do lists produced by five statistical criteria previously suggested, and also better than lists produced by most of the individual panel members.. The method makes use of both the in-document word-occurrence frequency and the in-corpus relative occurrence frequency as measures of word importance.. Each statistical criterion was compared with the performance of human indexers by the use of rank correlation statistics.. The simple word count was found to be superior to the other four previously suggested criteria - all of which made use of the in-corpus relative occurrence frequency.. The test were conducted over 19 documents dealing with the subject of Information Science, a total of over 66,000 word occurrences.. Seventeen indexers representing eight different information centers participated in experiments.."
80,"A Graphic Catalog Card Index To improve accessibility and maintenance of art slides in the United States Military Academy Library at West Point, a model card with a graphic image of the slide was designed with pertinent identifying information displayed directly above a black-and-white opaque photo and also key-punched into it.. The card serves for ample comparison reference previous to handling the slides and can produce a subject-arranged permuted index in book form.. The later permits access from the approach of form, geographic area, name, time of origin, artist, school, or style, etc.. Some added advantages, common to other kinds of graphic collections, are detailed.. Estimated costs of photo-reproduction of original cards, various kinds of copies, and computer time and materials are listed.. Future benefits from a consistent, unified cataloging system for graphic objects and the dissemination of this kind of information in a network structure are indicated as major goals.."
81,"Indexing Consistency and Quality A measure of indexing consistency is developed based on the concept of ""fuzzy-sets"".. It assigns a higher consistency value if indexers agree on the more important terms.. Measures of the quality of an indexer's work and exhaustivity of indexing are also proposed.. Experimental data on indexing consistency is presented for certain categories of indexers; and consistency, quality, and exhaustivity values are compared and analyzed.. The analysis of indexing exhaustivity leads to the conclusion that the increase of information as a result of group indexing is a process analogous to Bradford's law of information scattering, Lotka's law of scientific productivity, and Zipf's law of vocabulary distribution.."
82,"Is Interindexer Consistency A Hobgoblin? It is often assumed that the amount of interindexer consistency experienced under a given method of indexing is somehow indicative of the quality of the indexing.. To explore this assumption, two hypotheses are stated concerning the possible connection between interindexer consistency and indexing quality.. A specific counter-example is then exhibited which shows both hypotheses to be invalid.. Although a mathematical analysis of the counterexample yields certain insights, the general relationship between interindexer consistency and successful retrieval is more subtle than might have been expected.. It is concluded that until equations describing this relationship have been derived, measurements of inter-indexer consistency will have little meaning as clues to indexing quality.."
83,"The Cost Analysis of Document Surrogation: A Literature Review A state-of-the art literature review on the cost of classification, cataloging, indexing, and abstracting has been included.. It was found that while some data on specific costs are available, the literature is generally found lacking from the point of view of accuracy, completeness, consistency, and availability.."
84,"Some Independent Agreements and Resolved Disagreements   About Answer-Providing Documents Eighty-two documents and 30 questions, in documentation and related areas, was compared to find answer-providing documents (documents from which answers to questions can be inferred).. Two judges (documentation experts) made comparisons independently.. They discussed their disagreements, attempting to resolve them.. In each case the positive judge was first asked to indicate what answer he inferred, and from what document passage(s).. The further discussion depended on the details of each case.. In general, the resolution procedures used will resolve a disagreement about whether a document is answer-providing or reduce it to a familiar kind of scientific disagreement (about a passage's meaning, a statement's correctness, or an inference's correctness).. This seems better than treating relevance judgements as subjective and not open to rational discussion.."
85,"Information Science: Toward the Development of a True Scientific Discipline It is pointed out that if information science is to be considered a ""true"" science similar to physics or chemistry then it must have a set of concepts and analytical expression which apply to the flow of information in a general way.. In several previous papers, the author and a colleague have described a model of a generalized information system which has wide, and perhaps universal applicability.. This paper elaborates on this model and indicates the range of its applicability.. Several fundamental quantities are defined specifically in a way which allows for quantification.. It is pointed out in this paper that this model can be the basis for the development of a ""true"" science of information with all of the necessary requirements for a science.. By the use of this model and the definition of a ""true"" science, the goals and requirements for a curriculum in information science are thus established.. Within this context, information is defined as data of value in decision making.. Quantitative measures of information can be obtained by relating information to specific observable actions which can be measured physically.."
86,"A Comparison of a Keyword from Title Index with a Single Access Point  per Document Alphabetic Subject Index Two indexes to a collection of 3,204 documents in the field of chemistry were test-searched.. The indexes are a keyword from title index without added keywords and a single access point per document alphabetic subject index.. The indexes were searched by 13 graduate chemistry students using 55 questions.. Search results are characterized in terms of recall, precision, and search time.. There is no statistically significant difference in recall and precision search result between the multiple access points per document keyword from title index and the single access point per document alphabetic subject index.. Search time was significantly better for the alphabetic subject index for all but those questions having only one relevant document.."
87,"A Core Nursing Library for Practitioners The following books and journals for the Core Nursing Library, suggested reference materials, and supplementary books and journals were selected by experts in nursing from all parts of the United States. The purpose is to let practitioners and community hospitals know which books and journals, from a wealth of printed material would, in the opinion of experts, be most useful, especially where funds and space are limited."
88,"Patterns of Name Ordering among Authors of Scientific Papers: A study of Social Symbolism and Its Ambiguity With increasing scientific collaboration, visibility of individual role-performance has diminished.. Ordering of author' names as an adaptive device which symbolizes their relative contributions to research.. Interviews with Nobel laureates and comparisons of their name-order practices to those of other scientists suggest that this symbol is ambiguous and makes evaluation of individual role-performance difficult.. A probability model of expected distribution of name orders is used in measuring preferences for particular sequences, and these preferences vary with the authors' eminence.. On the assumptions that authors' names are listed in order of the value of their contributions, laureates should be first-authors more often than other scientists; in fact, they are not.. Instead, they exercise their noblesse oblige by giving credit to less eminent co-workers increasingly as their eminence grows.. They do so more often after the prize, and eminent laureates-to-be forego first-authorship more often than those as yet unrecognized.. The noblesse oblige, however, has its limits; laureates' contributions to prize-winning research are more visible than contributions to their other research.."
89,"Professional Standing and the Reception of Scientific Discoveries The Matthew Effect occurs when scientists receive differential recognition for a particular scientific contribution depending on their location in the stratification system. Merton originally introduced the concept to explain the allocation of credit among authors of multiple discoveries or collaborators. In this paper the concept is generalized to apply to all scientific work. If the Matthew Effect were to operate, the reception of papers of equal quality should be influenced by the location of their authors in the stratification system. To test this hypothesis, data are drawn from several studies of similar design. In each study we control for the number of citations papers received at time 2. This enables us to look at groups of papers that were judged to be roughly equal in quality at time 2. We then see whether there were any differences in the reception of these papers at time 1 depending upon various aspects of the author's location in the stratification system. All the data indicate that assessed quality of papers at time 2 is a more important determinant of a paper's initial reception than any of the stratification variables. However, the speed of diffusion of papers of equal quality is influenced by the reputation of the author based on past work that is being heavily utilized at the time of a new discovery. The Matthew Effect also operates for those scientists located at prestigious points of the social system of science. All other stratification variables, including eminence as measured by receipt of awards did not influence the speed of diffusion. Data are presented that indicate that top papers written by high-ranking scientists are no more likely to be widely diffused early than are top papers by low- ranking scientists. The Matthew Effect also serves to focus attention on the work of little-known men who collaborate with scientists of high repute and to increase retroactively the visibility of the early work of scientists who go on to greater fame. A discussion is included of the relevance of these data for the study of resistance to scientific discoveries."
90,"Involving, Computerizing, Personalizing In most libraries most users face a complex, monolithic arrangement of entries in catalogs and books on shelves. In classical librarianship no effort can be made to personalize the listing of titles or arrangement of volumes for an individual user. A user is unidentified, and, except for that small fraction of a percent who consult reference librarians, users remain nameless.  The computer, however, with its superb ability to treat users as individual persons and events as individual events, possesses the potential for enabling big libraries to recapture the human qualities of which classical librarianship has deprived them since their days as one-librarian libraries. However, rehumanization is not the only contribution computerization will make to libraries.  Developments in modern society are forcing libraries to establish new objectives. Contemporary living is information based, a phenomenon that is outmoding the venerable concept of library function. As small special libraries already do, all libraries must participate in the cultural activities of the individuals in their communities rather than merely make available a torpid ""service."" Libraries must look forward to supplying information to a user when and where he needs it - an objective impossible to attain with classical library techniques."
91,Williams & Wilkins - The Great Leap Backward This article contains a call for active participation by all segments of the library and educational community in the Williams and Wilkins controversy and in the effort to achieve appropriate copyright revision.
92,"OCLC for You - and ME?! Sometimes it seems as if the library world has divided into two camps; those who seem to know all about this thing called ""OCLC"" and who keep popping that rounded acronym into their conversation with a certain bromidic effervescence, and the other camp - plain folk who are happy to take library life one acronym at a time, as they need it, and who, if pressed, might guess that OCLC has something to do with, oh, Optical Codes at the Library of Congress?  Only in Ohio - where the Ohio College Library Center began and where this national, computerized, bibliographic data exchange continues to grow - is OCLC universally a library household term, even among computer-phobes. In Ohio, most librarians already realize the kind of thing going on at OCLC is not simply the building up of someone else's data base in little bits and bytes, but perhaps the biggest revolution in access to library collections since books were unchained from the shelves."
93,"The American Occupational Structure This book is the result of a collaborative effort extending over seven years. We have tried hard to make the book a genuine joint product to which each of us made the contributions he is best qualified to make. There is no senior author; the sequence of name is simply alphabetical, and we have reversed it in signing the preface and elsewhere to emphasize this fact. Our collaboration was motivated by our shared interest in social stratification, our common concern with advancing scientific social theory on the basis of systematic research, and the conviction that the inquiry would benefit from the different qualifications and viewpoints the two of us represent. There can be no doubt that our interests in and approaches to sociological problems differ to a considerable degree. Although we agree that refining research methods and advancing social theory are both important, for example, it is only fair to state that Duncan lays more stress on deriving theoretical generalizations."
94,"American Overseas Library Technical Assistance, 1940-1970 The United States has been engaged in activities known variously as technical assistance, technical cooperation, or development assistance for the past twenty-five years. This form of foreign aid, either government sponsored or privately supported, is a twentieth century phenomenon. The broader concept, foreign aid or foreign assistance, means providing another country with any kind of goods, whether financial, commodity, or manpower, to almost any purpose, and extends to antiquity. Technical assistance, which may be defined, on the other hand, as the supplying of techniques, is an outgrowth of the industrial revolution and parallels America's rise in the nineteenth century to world recognition as an important industrial and trade power. Government use of such aid as an instrument of foreign policy, as well as the integration of these private and public efforts in the foreign assistance field, began to develop under President Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy. This integration soon expanded under the new cultural relations program which the United States implemented during World War II to offset the Nazi propaganda and cultural offensive in Latin America."
95,"Scientific Communication: Five Themes from Social Science Research The recent upsurge of interest in the behavioral aspects of scientific and technical communication and information flow has two distinct sources, a theoretical one in the development of communication research, and a practical one in the concerns of policy makers in scientific organizations and information services.  For some time past, the attention of sociologists and social psychologists studying communication processes, once focused on so-called mass phenomena and mass publics, has turned to the interplay of communication processes with more and more definitely delineated and mapped aspects of social structure.  One aspect of this shift in interest has been the increasing attention paid by behavioral scientists to the systems supplying information of a specialized sort, and to the publics which are consumers of this specialized information. The scientific and applied professions have been most prominent among the publics so studied."
96,"Communication Patterns in Applied Technology The preceding papers have addressed themselves to the study of information flow in a particular stream of human activity which has been variously called science, pure science, basic research, or fundamental research, and which is only secondarily, if at all, concerned with the practical utilization of its products. At this point it is appropriate to note that there is a parallel activity which includes applied research, exploratory development, and engineering development. This second stream of research we will call technology. Far more is known about the flow of information among scientists than among technologists. From the knowledge that is available, however, we are led to conclude that the communication patterns  in the two areas of activity are not only largely independent of one another, but qualitatively different in their nature. This difference is reflected most clearly in the mechanisms by which information is diffused within the two sets of practitioners. The present paper is addressed to these differences and to a discussion of the nature of the communication process between science and technology."
97,"Bibliographical Citation Characteristics of the Psychological Journal Network in 1950 and in 1960 The aforementioned studies are related to the problem of information exchange in psychology. Journals are a part of the formal channel of scientific communication as well as storage elements for the summary accounts of research undertakings. Analysis of bibliographical citations thus can reveal certain characteristics of the pattern of information flow created by scientists in their work. The potential usefulness of this type of investigation is increased when it becomes possible to examine the trends through time of the communication network under consideration, and also when different communication networks can be compared.  The present paper deals with some of the characteristics of bibliographical citations in the same 21 psychological journals published both in 1950 and in 1960. The list of journals used, along with the abbreviations to be used here, is given in Table 1; it includes 8 journals published by the American Psychological Association and 13 journals published by other organizations."
98,"Scientific Communication: Its Role in the Conduct of Research and Creation of Knowledge There is considerable apprehension today within the scientific community over the communication crisis in science. The present article, which attempts to clarify certain aspects of the problem, overviews the data collected by the APA Project on Scientific Information Exchange in Psychology, together with data which we have more recently obtained relative to other disciplines. Such a reexamination of the data should help to clarify APA's relationship to the many information media involved in the communication process which begins with research and ends with the incorporation of research findings into psychological knowledge."
99,"Ecological Correlations and the Behavior of Individuals An individual correlation is a correlation in which the statistical object or thing described is indivisible. The correlation between color and illiteracy for persons in the United States, shown later in Table 1, is an individual correlation, because the kind of thing described is an indivisible unit, a person. In an individual correlation the variables are descriptive properties of individuals, such as height, income, eye color, or race, and not descriptive statistical constants such as rates or means.  In an ecological correlation the statistical object is a group of persons. The correlation between the percentage of the population which is Negro and the percentage of the population which is illiterate for the 48 states, shown later as Figure 2, is an ecological correlation. The thing described is the population of a state, and not a single individual. The variables are percentages, descriptive properties of groups, and not descriptive properties of individuals."
100,"Priorities in Scientific Discovery: A Chapter in the Sociology of Science We can only guess what historians of the future will say about the condition of present-day sociology. But it seems safe to anticipate one of their observations. When the Trevelyans of 2050 come to write that history - as they well might, for this clan of historians promises to go on forever - they will doubtless find it strange that so few sociologists (and historians) of the twentieth century could bring themselves, in their work, to treat science as one of the great social institutions of the time. They will observe that long after the sociology of science became an identifiable field of inquiry, it remained little cultivated in a world where science loomed large enough to present mankind with the choice of destruction or survival. They may even suggest that somewhere in the process by which social scientists take note of the world as it is and as it once was, a sense of values appears to have become badly scrambled."
101,"Social Factors in the Origins of a New Science: The Case of Psychology The uninterrupted growth of a scientific field depends upon the existence of a scientific community permanently devoting itself to the field.. Therefore, the new idea is not sufficient to start the take-off into sustained growth in a new field; a new role must be created as well.. In scientific psychology, this occurred in the late nineteenth century in Germany.. Using Germany as a positive case, and France, Britain and the United States as negative cases, it is shown that the new role resulted from academic career opportunities favoring the mobility of practitioners and students of psychology into other fields, and from the relatively low academic standing of speculative philosophy and its consequent receptivity to persons and ideas which promised to turn the study of the human mind into an experimental science.."
102,"Scientific Output and Recognition:   A Study in the Operation of the Reward System in Science The relationship between the quantity and quality of scientific output of 120 university physicists was studied.. Although these two variables are highly correlated, some physicists produce many papers of little significance and other produce a few papers of great significance.. The responses of the community of physicists to these distinct patterns of research publication were investigated.. Quality of output is more significant than quantity in eliciting recognition through the receipt of awards, appointment to prestigious academic departments, and being widely known to one's colleagues.. The reward system operates to encourage creative scientists to be highly productive, to divert the energies of less creative physicists into other channels, and to produce a higher correlation between quantity and quality of output in the top departments than in the weaker departments.."
103,"Nobel Laureates in Science: Patterns of Productivity, Collaboration, and Authorship Nobel laureates in science publish more and are more apt to collaborate than a matched sample of scientists.. Interviews with 41 of 55 laureates and comparison of their research output with the output of the matched sample indicate that these patterns hold at every stage of the life-work-cycle.. As laureates report and as their publications collaborate, they exercise noblesse oblige in arranging co-authorship in collaborative publications.. Receipt of the Nobel prize is followed by declining productivity and changed work practices, as a result of changed role obligations and activities.. Reductions in productivity are more severe for laureates who experience comparatively large increments in prestige through the prize than for those who were already eminent.. The prize generates strain in collaborative associations so that most of these terminate soon after the award.."
104,"Visibility and the Structural Bases of Awareness of Scientific Research The paper contains an analysis of several aspects of the communication process in science.. Using data obtained from printed sources and questionnaires mailed to university physicists, the conditions making for high visibility of a scientists' work are studied.. Four strong determinates of visibility were found: the quality of work, as measured by citations; the honorific awards received for work in physics; the prestige of the physics department to which the scientist belong; and speciality.. Quantity of output, age, and name-ordering patterns on collaborative papers have no independent effect on visibility.. Just as some physicists may be easily seen (i.e., have high visibility), other are in positions where they may easily see.. This latter characteristic is called ""awareness""..The data indicate that awareness is high in all sectors of the population studied.. Variables such as age, rank of department, and quality of work made for only minor differences in awareness.. We conclude that the communication system in physics operates efficiently.."
105,"Social Structure in a Group of Scientists: A Test of the ""Invisible College"" Hypothesis The existence of social organization within a research area may be inferred (a) if scientists who have published in the area have more social ties with one another than with scientists who have not published, and (b) scientists who have published in the area can be differentiated by degree od social participation within the area.. Using the mail questionnaire, sociometric data on different types of scientific relationships were obtained from scientists, all of whom had published in a particular problem area.. Respondents chose scientists who had not published in the area as often as they chose scientists within the area.. Analysis of direct and indirect ties, using Cleman's method for analysis of sociometric connectedness, revealed that a tie with one or more of the highly productive scientists brought other scientists of less productivity into a large network of influence and communication.. Similarities between this type of social organization and that of the ""social circle"" are discussed.."
106,"Growth and Decay Curves in Scientific Citations In a rapidly advancing scientific discipline, new contributions will supersede older ones.. This selection in favor of recent literature should be observable in the distribution of footnote citations in a given discipline, by age of article cited.. However, the age distribution of citations also depends on the rate of growth of the disciplinary literature.. The effect of growth of the literature and of selection favoring recent articles can be separated, if certain assumptions hold, by use of an exponential model that expands and clarifies earlier findings by Price.. This model provides a reasonably good fit to age-distributions of footnotes in several disciplines, and its application suggest that citations in sociology tend to refer to older articles than those in the natural sciences..A parameter in the model, measuring the degree of selectivity in favor of recent articles, can be estimated and may be useful in comparative studies of the communication systems of various disciplines.."
107,"The Structure of Scientific Fields and  the Functioning of University Graduate Departments Kuhn's concept of paradigm suggests that academic disciplines could be viewed as technologies involving degree of task predictability.. A series of hypotheses were developed in which relatively high paradigm development in a discipline was predicted to facilitate research and teaching through improved processes of communication and access to stored information.. Using questionnaire data collected from 80 university graduate departments, physicists and chemists were found to exhibit more agreement over field content, and to be more willing and satisfied to spend time with graduate students than sociologists and political scientists.. In addition, chemists were found to collaborate with larger numbers of graduate students in research than scientists in the other fields.. Two other aspects of scientific structure are discussed: the level of innovation being pursued within a field of a given time, and the degree of institutionalized differentiation of the field into subdisciplines.."
108,"Productivity Differences among Scientists:  Evidence for Accumulative Advantage The highly skewed distributions of productivity among scientists can be partly explained by a process of accumulative advantage.. Because of feedback through recognition and resources, highly productive scientists maintain or increase their productivity, while scientists who produce very little produce even less later on.. A major implication of accumulative advantage is that the distribution of productivity becomes increasingly unequal as a cohort of scientists ages.. Cross-sectional survey data support this hypothesis for chemists, physicists, and mathematicians, who show strong linear increases in inequality with increasing career age.. This increase is highly associated with a changing distribution of time spent on research.. Another implication of accumulative advantage is also corroborated: the association among productivity, resources and esteem increases as career age increases.."
109,"The Distribution of Social and Cultural Properties in Informal Communication Networks Among Biological Scientists Informal communication among biological scientists forms a discernible social structure.. This research analyzes the relation of that structure to (1) scientists' descriptions of their research and the orientations that underlie those descriptions, (2) social status in science, and (3) the formal social categories of science (i.e. discipline, department, and research organization).. Each of the observed structures is contrasted with a random model.. Neither social status nor the formal social categories show greater association on the social structure than to the random model.. The culture of science, on the other hand, as represented by description of research and the orientations underlying those descriptions, shows very strong associations with the discerned network structures.."
110,The Gatekeepers of Science: Some Factors Affecting the Selection of Articles of Scientific Journals The norms of scientific behavior as described by Merton include the prescription that scientific achievements are to be judged without reference to scientists' social characteristics. This article will attempt to assess the extent to which this norm is followed with respect to the evaluation of articles by scientific journals.
111,"Bibliographical Reference Patterns in Core Sociological Journals, 1965-1966 The present study attempted to extend previous work on bibliographical reference patterns in sociological journals in the following ways: (1) by selecting for study those journals to which American sociologists prefer to submit their work, (2) by including, over a two-year period, all bibliographical references (journals, books, technical reports, etc.), and (3) by including, for initial comparison, a journal from the physical sciences. Such a study, it was hoped, would yield data concerning similarities and differences among the sociological journals and between the sociological journals and the physical science journal."
112,"Sociology Today: Lacunae, Emphases, and Surfeits In sociology today, as in other sciences, the professional journals serve as major channels for the dissemination of ideas and information. The papers presented in the principal periodicals reach a wide audience among sociologists, are acknowledged as the best work, and stand as models for all who aspire to success. The viewpoints, conceptual schemes, interests, and methodologies reflected in these articles are therefore significant influences on both the current character and the future development of our discipline."
113,"Measuring the Quality of Sociological Research: Problems in the Use of the Science Citation Index The Problem of assessing the ""quality"" of scientific publications has long been a major impediment to progress in the sociology of science. Most researchers have typically paid homage to the belief that quantity of output is not the equivalent of quality and have then gone ahead and used publication counts anyway (Coler, 1963; Crane, 1965; Price, 1963; Wilson, 1964). There seemed to be no practicable way to measure the quality of large numbers of papers or the life's work of large numbers of scientists. The invention of the Science Citation Index (SCI) a few years ago provides a new and reliable tool to measure the significance of individual scientists' contributions. Starting in 1961, the SCI has listed all bibliographic references appearing in an increasingly large number of journals. The number of citations an individual receives may be tabulated and used as an indicator of the relative scientific significance or ""quality"" of that individual's publications."
114,"The Analysis of Information Systems This book is intended to supply the background needed for participation in the analysis and design of information-handling systems and for understanding the literature in the field. I have tried to present a unified approach to the subject and to the relation of information retrieval to other disciplines and an appreciation of the importance of this interdisciplinary relationship. I hope that the scientist or computer programmer, newly interested in information-retrieval problems, as well as the librarian, will find the book of value."
115,Analysis of Library User Circulation Requirements This research study is concerned with the use of the last circulation date as a statistic to help describe library user circulation requirements.. Some decision rules were developed to use this parameter as an aid in determining the number of copies of books to be held in the library and as an aid in the weeding of books from the library's holdings.. The effect of these decision rules on the circulation requirements of users as well as on library operations are described.. The method of data collection is described in detail and is applicable at libraries having comparable charging systems.. Cumulative distribution functions of last circulation date at two large college libraries and a public library were prepared and have been plotted for both circulation data and stack holding data.. This same data has also been plotted by subdivided subject category.. Circulation operating characteristics were prepared for all three libraries..
116,"The Documentation of Chemical Research Due to the fact that scientific-technical research is constantly increasing, it is becoming more and more difficult to retrieve the published results of research.. A new field of science, documentation, has been developed as a contribution to the removal of this difficulty.. Depending on the type and extent of the subject different methods for its documentation will be followed.. Methods and possibilities for the comprehensive documentation of chemistry and its related fields are explained.."
117,TOSAR - A Topological method for the Representation of Synthetic and Analytical Relations of Concepts In mechanized systems used for searching in literature stores there is a steadily growing necessity not only to be able to formulate concepts as a search condition but also the characteristic connections under which these concepts appear in the inquiry.. In this way the precision of the mechanized literature search is considerably increased.. TOSAR has been developed in order to improve computerized literature searching in this respect..
118,"Animal Dispersion in Relation to Social Behavior The theory presented in this book links together the subjects of population and brhavior. It applies to animals in general, which gives it an exceedingly wide scope."
119,"Information Networks In the literature, active network plans and developments appear to cluster in three main areas: (1) Education, (2) Libraries, and (3) Government, Industry, and Professional Societies. These network groupings are described in this chapter following a discussion of network definitions, concepts, and current impetus. References to information systems are included when there is an indication that a particular system will probably be transformed into a network."
120,"Design and Evaluation of Information Systems In corresponding chapters of earlier volumes of this review may be discerned a trend toward progressive broadening of content coverage. The initial emphasis was on design and evaluation concepts and on techniques that were rather closely -  and narrowly - connected with information storage and retrieval systems. It is becoming increasingly clear, however, that there are many activities and ideas outside of this context that have, or can have, a very important bearing on the work of systems analysts, designers, and evaluators working on library and documentation systems. This chapter attempts to continue enlarging our perception of the range of reported activities that can help to improve the kinds of systems in which our readers are chiefly interested."
121,"Document Dissemination This chapter is directed to those whose vocation (or avocation) is information. While we may call ourselves librarians, information scientists or technologists, abstractors and indexers, documentalists, IS&R specialists, literature searchers, and so forth, we all have one thing in common: We are either directly or indirectly involved in the dissemination of information. As disseminators, we are interested in far more than the techniques for transmission of information from one point to another. Despite McLuhan's (93) statement that ""the medium is the message,"" we must concern ourselves with not only the means of document dissemination, but also the content and value of the documents we disseminate. This idea is prevalent throughout most of the papers reviewed in this chapter. A disseminator should think of himself as a selective switching center, inputting data, evaluating them, selecting worthy items, and directing and controlling their transmission to a target: the reader."
122,"Information Networks The rapidly growing rate at which information is produced and used in our complex society has presented us with major problems in information transfer. We encounter these problems not only in libraries, information centers, and schools, but also in many of the operations of government and business. The handling of large amounts of information is becoming a dominant theme in the management of our way of life. We are a technologically oriented society, and we have naturally turned to our communications technology to help us perform our enormous information transfer task. Beginning with the telegraph and continuing through the telephone, through radio and television to the communications satellite, the methods of electrical signal transmission have served to distribute information to its ultimate users."
123,"Annual Reviews of Information Science and Technology In spite of concerns expressed in the literature about the health and vigor of the field of information science and of its service-oriented institutions - libraries and information centers - the progress reviews in this volume provide grounds for optimism. Some of the trends that were commented on in Volume 6 have proved to be solid and important. For example, the movement toward rapid interactive access to major public and commercial data bases is not very strong, and it will probably not be many years before satisfying experience with this new mode of information access will help it become not merely an experimental innovation but the standard means of searching and using centrally (or regionally) held data. Three chapters in this volume touch on related aspects of the movement: Bennett's review of the user interface in interactive systems, Gechman's report on machine-readable bibliographic data bases, and Brandhorst and Eckert's review of document retrieval and dissemination systems.  This volume also introduces a new Annual Review topic of potentially great importance for future libraries: video cartridges and cassettes. It is widely accepted that libraries and information centers will, in the coming years, shift the balance of their holdings in the direction of some of the newer media, and the chapter by Kletter and Hudson helps to define the potential and problems of some of the promising new media. Other new areas of interest are information system applications in the criminal justice system and information system applications in the humanities.  In addition to these topics, this volume covers three of the core areas of information science, which we attempt to review on as close to an annual basis as possible: information needs and uses, document description and representation, and organization of information. This coverage is consistent with a newly developed Annual Review master plan for cyclic but flexible coverage of some 40 major areas of interest in library and information science."
124,"The User Interface in Interactive Systems The digital computer has been used as a problem-solving tool for only two decades. During most of this time, computer scientists have concentrated on learning how to build the tool: applying electronic technology, arranging for data flow between components, and manufacturing the hardware. Now we are entering a new stage in which computing power is made available through interactive terminals to people who are not computer scientists. This is possible on a large scale only because design and marketing innovators now have confidence in their ability to provide reliable, cost-effective service to less sophisticated users. In this new stage, the natural behavior patterns of users become an important element in the design of the interface to the tool."
125,"Machine-Readable Bibliographic Data Bases The advent of machine-readable data bases is one of the most significant forward steps in information retrieval.. Currently, the creation and application of these data bases are in a period of very rapid growth.. This reviewer sees a great need for a review of ""what is going on"" because there is so much going on.. It is the goal of this chapter to fulfill that need even though it is difficult to hold this dynamic field static for a good meaningful look.."
126,"Annual Reviews of Information Science and Technology The major trends of the 1970's in information system planning and services are becoming clear, as indicated in this year's Annual Review chapters. The movement toward inter-institutional operations, or networking, began gaining force in the 1965-1970 period, through the establishment of many new library consortia, and there were some tentative efforts to use computers for nationwide bibliographic information ""utilities."" These movements are now more vigorous and are showing signs of being cost-effective, productive ventures. Inter-institutional cooperation not only promises service improvements and cost reductions, but also poses new problems and demands. Formalized cooperation among different institutions requires agreement about needs and priorities and gives special importance to a clear understanding of the information needs of specific user subgroups. It also requires more careful and productive system planning and design, including intelligent consideration of the ""make versus buy"" issue. Several chapters in this volume touch on these problems and considerations.  One of the most significant developments in 1973 was the rapid growth in the use of on-line information retrieval services - both those operated by the federal government and those operated by the private sector. The apparent cost-effectiveness of these services is raising some of the same problems for data base producers that inter-institutional cooperation among library and information facilities is raising for the publishers of printed materials: namely, how to cover rising costs in the face of declining (or less rapidly growing) sales of individual units of the product - monographs, serials, secondary information publications, or magnetic tapes. The inclusion of a chapter on copyright - the first in the Annual Review series - reflects the importance of this topic in the growing controversy over the ownership and distribution of information. Another aspect of that controversy - the role of government and non-profit information services in relation to those of private industry - is explored in this year's chapter on document retrieval systems and techniques."
127,"Use of Machine-Readable Data Bases This is the first Annual Review chapter entitled ""Use of Machine- Readable Data Bases."" Therefore, the coverage provided is for more than a one-year period. A chapter by Gechman (79) on machine-readable bibliographic data bases included literature from 1969 through 1971. A chapter by Housman (100) covered the use of data bases for selective dissemination of information (SDI) and a chapter by Parkins & Kennedy (153) has previously reviewed secondary information services. This chapter will cover the 1973 literature on data bases as well as earlier data base papers not treated in prior chapters.  For purposes of this chapter, a data base is considered to be an organized set of machine-readable records containing bibliographic or document-related data."
128,"Design and Evaluation of Information Systems The co-joining of ""design"" with ""evaluation"" that is called for by this chapter posed organizational and inclusion-exclusion problems for the author. In part, ""design"" and ""evaluation"" prescribe two separate sets of activities, the former pertaining to the planning, development, and testing of new information system structures and modification of existing structures, the latter to appraisals and assessments of operational systems and system components. However, ""design"" includes not only the formulation of goals and objectives for systems but also provisions for evaluation in accordance with expectations. ""Evaluation"" applies to testing design concepts and to trying out preliminary implementations for the purpose of improving initial designs, as well as to the appraisal of operating systems. Appraisals at any stage of system operability may yield data that indicate the need for system modifications that require redesign and assessment. Thus, portions of ""design"" and ""evaluation"" are closely interrelated, as Katter demonstrated in his 1969 review.  ""Design"" and ""evaluation"" may be examined methodologically or with respect to outcomes of the application of methodologies. Increasingly, designers and evaluators have been acknowledging the dependence of outcomes on sound procedural conceptualizations. The current literature discloses research on the processes of design and evaluation as well as on their products."
129,"Generation and Uses of Machine-Readable Data Bases This chapter continues the coverage of the generation and use of machine-readable data bases inaugurated in Volume 9 by Williams (178). It is therefore an update consisting primarily of 1974 material and is prepared in general accordance with Williams's initial compilation.  The same definition of data bases and the boundaries of their applications used in Volume 9 are continued this year. A data base is considered to be an organized collection of machine-readable records containing bibliographic and/or document-related data (e.g., index information). The data bases that we will consider are used for information storage and retrieval and/or research in information storage and retrieval or data base generation.  The choice of these constraints precludes coverage of several areas. First, data bases primarily concerned with numerical or other nonbibliographic information, such as chemical structures, (Milen et al., 112) are excluded. Thus, even though the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) Registry Number is a data element common to many bibliographic data bases, papers such as that by CAS regarding progress in building the Registry System itself (39) are excluded. Similarly, though some textual and bibliographic material is included in the Systems Consultants, Inc report (156) to the Navy, most of the information retrieval is concerned with miniaturized hardware in a shipboard environment and thus is not considered within the scope of this chapter. Finally, though many of the data bases are used for generation of publications via phototypesetting, we are not considering that production operation."
130,"Cooperation in Information Activities Through International Organizations International cooperation in the processing, sharing, and transfer of scientific and technical information takes many forms and can be accomplished through many agencies. This chapter proposes to review the role played by international organizations in stimulating and providing channels and mechanisms for such cooperation. The international organizations to be discussed are of two types: intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), in which member nations participate through their governments under formal treaties or agreements; and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) where, with some exceptions, participation is through national professional societies or nongovernmental institutions. The specialized agencies of the United Nations, including UNESCO, fall in the first category; organizations such as the International Federation for Documentation (FID) are in the second."
131,"Introduction to the ADI Annual Review Over the past 15 or 20 years, a new and growing field of inquiry has begun to take shape. This field, which will be referred to as ""Information Science and Technology,"" draws on fragments and fringes of a number of sciences, technologies, disciplines, arts, and practices. The element that provides whatever degree of cohesiveness now exists in the field is a shared deep concern with ""information"" - its generation, transformation, communication, storage, retrieval, and use.  Because of the universality of information processes, and also because of the variety of backgrounds of those concerned with them, there is very little agreement about the boundaries of Information Science and Technology, or about its parentage, its essential nature, or its future. To put it simply, at the present time there is no clearly defined and well-understood field of Information Science and Technology. There is not, truth to tell, even clear agreement on what the word ""information"" itself means and particularly on whether it implies a creative act of the intellect or a commodity that can be embodied in documents, transported, and exchanged. Distressing as this ambiguity and lack of agreement may be, they need not and do no preclude a constructive review of topics of current interest to users, designers, and students of information systems and services. The purpose of the ADI Annual Review series, initiated in this volume, is to provide such a review."
132,"Information Needs and Uses in Science and Technology The way in which scientists and engineers make use of the information systems at their disposal, the demands that they put to them, the satisfaction achieved by their efforts, and the resultant impact on their further work are among the items of knowledge which are necessary for the wise planning of science information systems and policy. Besides, these matters can be of great significance to the behavioral scientist interested in human organization and communication. While ""user studies"" have not yet gone very far in serving either of these functions, the end of 1963 seems to have been something of a take-off point for empirical research on the information needs and uses of scientists and technologists. For this first volume of the Annual Review, we shall therefore cover studies that made their appearance as far back as the last month of 1963, to give the reader a rounded picture of a period during which this area of research has witnessed progress along the following lines:   Substantial advances in the more systematic and fruitful application  of a technique (critical incidents) that had made its appearance in  this field earlier in less rigorous forms;   The introduction of at least two very promising approaches (solution  development records; comparison of research teams working on identical  tasks) quite different from any that had been applied to this field before;  and   An increase in the number of efforts at comprehensive study of the  information-flow situation in given disciplines, one of which [American  Psychological Association (3)] has become the model and envy of research  in this area."
133,"The Annual Review of Information Science and Technology This volume is the second in a series of Annual Reviews of progress in the field of Information Science and Technology. Like its predecessor, it attempts to describe, compare, and evaluate the most significant work that has been reported in the field during the past year. The effort has been undertaken in the belief that such taking stock of accomplishments provides a valuable service to the specialists in the information science field.  The chapters on New Techniques for Publication and Distribution of Information, on New Developments in Chemical Documentation, and on Applications in Medicine."
134,"Evaluation of Information Systems and Services This chapter summarizes and discusses the present state of the art in testing and evaluation. Three tasks will be undertaken: to outline in some detail the few substantive research projects involving testing and evaluation, to describe a number of research projects in areas cognate to testing and evaluation, and finally, to provide some general conclusions with respect to past and future activity. Although a distinction is made in this review between laboratory-based experimentation and tests of operational systems, the methodology used in each instance is substantially the same. As yet, no full-scale and elaborate field approach has been attempted."
135,"Design of Information Systems and Services This review has selected for emphasis reports on concepts of systems analysis and on the procedures for applying these concepts to the design of information systems. Literature dealing with the automation of libraries and information centers has been explicitly excluded, while material on user studies, file organization, evaluation, etc., is only mentioned briefly since it is covered more thoroughly in other chapters.  The selected, relevant, and available literature that has been published in the last year or so is organized into four groups as follows:   1. Articles that help define the process of systems analysis and   the relationship to information science.   2. Articles that describe the concepts of systems analysis as   applied to the analysis and design of information systems.   3. Articles primarily concerned with the design of document   storage and retrieval systems."
136,"The Annual Review of Information Science and Technology The Annual Review of Information Science and Technology is now in its third year. Like its two predecessors, this volume attempts to describe and evaluate the most significant work that has been reported in the field during the past year, with the ultimate aim of improving both our standards and our means of professional communication.  The field of information science and technology continues to evolve and grow. As it does, new areas of interest emerge and established areas of interest change in importance. Accordingly, our pattern of coverage changes. The single chapter on Automation in Libraries and Information Centers, in Volume 2, has been expanded into two chapters, one covering automation of technical processes and the other covering document networks, and a new chapter has been added on information system applications in education. Such applications are important not just because they involve, in part, libraries and other information facilities but because they highlight innovative ideas and techniques that should be of value to anyone interested in the total communication process.  At the same time, ""core"" chapters of the review are continued: information needs and uses; content analysis, specification, and control; file organization and search; publication and distribution techniques; automated language processing; man-machine communication; information system design and evaluation; and professional aspects of information science. These topics are of continuing and vital interest to our readers, and their annual literature is significant, large, and growing."
137,"Information Needs and Uses Information science meets behavioral science in the study of information needs and uses. At first, the meeting of these fields was inconclusive. Until the mid-1960's, there were only a few substantial studies of information needs and uses. Since about 1963, however, a significant literature has grown rapidly.  There is evidence now of a productive entente between the fields. When information scientists see reliable, valid, and nontrivial data on users' behavior, they begin to use behavioral criteria in evaluating information system performance. When behavioral scientists glimpse the full complexity of dissemination, documentation, storage, and retrieval processes, they offer fewer naive solutions to ""the information problem.""  This mutual education and accommodation will undoubtedly continue. Information science and behavioral science need each other. Big Science needs them both."
138,"The Annual Review of Information Science and Technology This, the fourth volume of the Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, is both like and unlike its predecessors. The basic objective - to provide the most comprehensive and technically sound progress review ever prepared in the information science field - remains the same, as do the basic areas of interest and coverage. Too, the primary emphasis continues to be on published literature and reports, to permit the reader to identify, locate, and examine interesting and important sources of information about various aspects of our technical progress.  Some new areas of growing importance are introduced this year. For the first time, a chapter on reprography and microfilm technology and one on the international aspects of information transfer have been included. Also, the topics of document dissemination and the secondary services, usually covered in parts of other chapters, have full and separate chapters this year. Another change, made in response to suggestions from readers for better signposts within each volume, is the division of the book into several major segments, each introduced by a short description of the contents of the section, the relationships among the chapters within it, and, in some instances, one or two highlights of the year's technical progress."
139,"Information Needs and Uses Previous authors in this series, writing on this subject, have usually felt it necessary to begin with a statement concerning the state of the methodology of ""user"" studies. They have, for the most part, found it improved over the past, and this year is no exception in that regard. There remains, however, the tendency on the part of many who are untrained in social science methodology to assume that the art of questionnaire design and administration is a very simple one that anyone with intelligence can master in a single attempt. One never realizes how truly wrong this view is until he finds himself the author of a review chapter and is then confronted with the sort of trivia that many authors submit as research papers."
140,"Annual Review of Information Science and Technology The field of information science and technology continues to grow and, as it grows, to show new emphases and explore new areas of interest. Volume 5 reflects these changes. The increasing interest in and movement toward library networks and other cooperative, technology-supported information activities have helped to focus special attention not only on data processing and microfilm technology, the two traditional mainstays of library and document-handling systems, but also on the rapidly developing capabilities in modern tele-communications. Thus, a chapter on communication technology has appeared, for the first time, to bring readers up to date on changes in the communications industry that have had or will have a great impact on how we design and use information-handling systems.  Two other first-time chapters cover management information systems and information systems in state and local government. While the intent behind the development of such systems, and the kinds of services they provide, is peripheral to the purposes and services of library and document-handling systems, one often sees in these peripheral areas some information parallels. Indeed, one of the reasons for the Annual Review's covering one or more of these areas each year is to help its readers exploit more fully the thinking and the problem-solving techniques they are fostering."
141,"Application of Computer Technology to Library Process: a syllabus The application of computer technology to library and network processes and services is not an end in itself, but rather a means of narrowing the gap between the demand for library services and the ability of libraries to provide those services. Libraries have assumed the active role of serving the informational, educational and recreational needs of the population. The size of that population grows constantly, its educational level keeps climbing, and its percentage of leisure time is increasing.  The application of computer technology to libraries, especially to the manipulation of bibliographic records in the performance of library functions, is a complex process and demands the highest level of talent of both the library and computer professions for its accomplishment. It cannot be accomplished by either profession alone; rather, the design of a library system is a team effort between librarians, computer system analysts, and programmers. Even a limited effort demands careful long-term planning if it is to fit with later efforts into a cohesive whole. The smallest project will affect nearly all operations of the library. For these reasons it is necessary that all library staff have at least a general overview of what library automation is all about."
142,"Archives and Library Relations A distinct characteristic of man is the need to communicate and record knowledge. The tools of communication have ranged from clay to satellites. Civilized societies have taken great pains to place recorded knowledge in safe places and create archives and libraries for this purpose.  The importance of recorded knowledge for survival and progress is constantly being elevated as more and more information is presented. Without information and its necessary control, a society is not only stagnant, but regressive. With social memory, preserved and controlled by archives and libraries, a society is able to evolve to whatever future it is destined to experience in an ever-changing environment.  Archives were the forerunners of libraries. The ancient archives contained the best of society's accumulated knowledge; and as nations grew in wealth and security, archives and libraries become symbols of a country's aspiration to create a better society. Today, archives and libraries are necessities. These cultural institutions pass information to succeeding generations in a variety of forms of distributable media. In this way, archives and libraries preserve the memory of civilization and pass this memory on to living individuals. The materials in these institutions contain the written and graphic record of social memory and human heritage and provide society with information on which to base actions, develop policies, ascertain rights, educate, and entertain."
143,"The Area Specialist Bibliographer: an inquiry into his role It is the intent of this volume to develop a model designed to eliminate present difficulties and ambiguities and to improve administrative procedures for future development of area programs. This will be accomplished by giving some indication of the climate of opinion toward area specialist bibliographers and by isolating factors which influence these opinions. These attitudes will be presented by the perceptions of area bibliographers toward their role and the expectations of faculty and library administrators toward that role. The bibliographer's academic, professional, and educational experience will be examined in this framework."
144,"The Art of Computer Programming The process of preparing programs for a digital computer is especially attractive because it not only can be economically and scientifically rewarding, it can also be an aesthetic experience much like composing poetry or music. This book is the first volume of a seven-volume set of books that has been designed to train the reader in the various skills which go into a programmer's craft."
145,"ASIDIC Survey of Information Center Services The data in that survey covered the year 1971. Many recipients of the 1972 document have requested updated information. Accordingly, the ASIDIC Cooperative Data Management Committee initiated a new survey. The questionnaires were mailed out in January of 1975 and responses came in throughout the year. Questionnaires were sent to all member organizations of ASIDIC and EUSIDIC. Questionnaires were also sent to individual members of ASIS SIG/SDI and SIG/UOI.   Responses received throughout 1975 were checked and tabulated in 1976. Because of the time delay in producing the final compilation the reader is warned against using this survey as an up-to-date source for information as to which centers are processing which data bases.   Of the 116 responding organizations 75 process data bases and 41 use data base services either as end users or as brokers. Of the 75 that process data bases (i.e., spin tapes) 51 (68%) are members of ASIDIC and/or EUSIDIC. This survey provides representative data for data base processing organizations. The use of online search services was relatively new in 1974 hence data regarding online users would not be representative of the 1976 online situation."
146,"The Testing of Index Language Devices In this paper we set out the fundamental operations involved in compiling and using an index, show how the various factors can influence the operating efficiency, and consider the methods to be used in the present Aslib Cranfield investigation."
147,"Research on Users' Needs: Where is it Getting Us? Since Bernal made his pilot survey of the use of scientific literature for the 1948 Royal Society Scientific Information Conference, at least three dozen other investigations have been reported of the needs of scientists and engineers for information, of their information gathering habits, and the use to which they put information.  Some of these have been concerned with the people in individual organizations, but have implications elsewhere. Others, including Aslib's own investigations, have had wider aims. Some have been based upon observations and records of what the scientists and engineers themselves did or said, and some upon records of the demands they made upon libraries. There have been both surveys of opinions, and collections of facts."
148,"Fair (Fast Access Information Retrieval) Project; Aims and Methods I am going to describe in general terms a research project which has been established to explore some of the problems of the use of the literature, particularly in the field of Biomedical Engineering of the National Institute for Medical Research (Hampstead Laboratories). The project is scheduled to last for three years, and like most research, consists of a number of overlapping stages. We have reached the stage now of having acquired sufficient equipment and data to start trying out some of our ideas."
149,"The Cranfield Tests on Index Language Devices The investigation dealt with the effect which different devices have on the performance of index languages.. It appeared that the most important consideration was the specificity of the index terms; within the context of the conditions existing in this test, single-word terms were more effective than concept terms or a controlled vocabulary.."
150,"Current Awareness Searches on CT, CBAS and ASCA During the past year we have been one of the organizations participating in the Chemical Society's experiment on the use of routine computer searches of Chemical Titles (CT) and Chemical- Biological Activities (CBAC) for current awareness. For some time we have also been subscribing to the Automatic Subject Citation Alert (ASCA), which is produced by the Institute for Scientific Information as a by-product of the Science Citation Index. These three sources differ in their scope and methods, but share the same ultimate objective of providing a computer-based current awareness service.  CT covers journals in all branches of chemistry, but provides only authors and titles, the latter translated into American and edited by breaking down complex words so that word fragments can be retrieved. CBAC covers only papers on the interaction of chemical compounds with biological systems, but provides abstracts which are available for computer search. The computer can also search for molecular formulae and for Chemical Abstracts registry numbers of all compounds included in the abstracts. ASCA in its original form was based on citations: the search profile can consist of a list of references to older work, and the output is then a list of new papers citing this work. Last spring ASCA introduced a 'term search', which is a search for words in the titles of current papers and is therefore analogous to a CT search.  This paper discusses and compares the results we have obtained so far with these three services, and the potential use of systems of this type."
151,"Thesaurus Compilation Methods: A Literature Review This review has been sponsored by the Office for Scientific and Technical Information and the end product of the complete research will be a thesaurus of management terms. Parallel research in the business management area and also supported by OSTI is being conducted by David Dews, Librarian of the Manchester Business School, and K.D.C. Vernon, Librarian of the London Graduate School of Business Studies. As Mr. Vernon is at present engaged in the construction of a faceted classification scheme for management, this investigation has concentrated on the possibility of utilizing faceted techniques to construct such a thesaurus.  A study of existing information retrieval systems in the management field has already been made, so a decision to adopt some form of post-co-ordinate indexing was assumed. Thus a comparative study of other systems will not be attempted. A decision has also already been made that a controlled vocabulary, i.e. a thesaurus, was eventually going to be developed despite the latest Cranfield results that appear to provide evidence of the superiority of natural language over controlled vocabularies. This was primarily because these results were restricted to tests on an aeronautical collection, and it may well be that the natural language of this discipline is in itself a fairly controlled one, which is certainly not the case with the rather 'soft' language of management. This is borne out to some extent by Halkin, who quotes relevance figures for coordinate indexing applied to organic chemistry (55 percent), engineering (35 percent), and social science (20 per cent).  Machine methods of term generation as described by Ovchinnikov, Mastermann and Luhn will not be considered, as there is no equipment available to prepare thesauri on the lines these authors suggest."
152,"Organizational Aspects of Information Flow in Technology For about five years now a small group of us at MIT have been conducting a series of investigations into the information needs of technologists, the manner in which these needs are presently met, the relation between various ways of fulfilling information needs and technological performance, and the nature of factors which determine the ways in which information needs will be fulfilled."
153,"Criteria for Evaluating Technical Library Effectiveness In July 1966 John I. Thompson & Company accepted a contract with the Picatinny Arsenal, US Department of the Army, to perform a study aimed at developing 'Criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of library operations and services' under the ATLIS Program (Army Technical Library Improvement Studies). The study was divided into three phases aimed at:   I A Literature search to reflect the current 'state-of-the    art' covering library standards and the methods of evaluating    libraries developed up to the present.  II A phase in which to gather and evaluate any data required from    Army Technical Libraries, from available surveys already    published, or from any other sources, by which to develop    criteria.  III A phase in which to establish and validate the criteria.  Phases I and II of the study are now complete. Phase III is in progress and is expected to be completed by the late fall of 1968. The reports of Phases I and II are already available for detailed study and that of Phase III will be available soon. The purpose of this paper is to present some of the findings of the study."
154,"The UDC in its International Aspects Universal Decimal Classification - dying duck or live bird? - or some such title - was suggested to me, but this is highly debatable, and there will hardly be time for the duck-shooters to develop a concerted onslaught in the half-hour or so allowed us for discussion. Besides, I hope to be able to convince you - if the BSI's fine efforts have not already done so - that the UDC is by no means the dying duck - certainly not the dead duck - that some of its severest critics seem to imagine. Perhaps the bird has ceased to soar as it once did in the times of Otlet, La Fontaine, Bradford and Donker Duyvis, but that it is still viable in the turbulent air of current documentation may be gauged from a recent FID inquiry aimed at obtaining figures for the distribution of UDC editions and an approximate estimate of the number of users throughout the world."
155,"Subject Relations in Science/Technology Literature The analysis of citations has often been employed to indicate the use of the literature of science and technology. Citation is only an indicator of use, not an accurate measure, and like all such indicators has defects. Differences between indicators have been discussed elsewhere.  Despite these defects, an examination of citations does enable one to sample acts of literature use within a large community. The study reported here was directed, in fact, to all United Kingdom authors of science/ technology publications in a given year, and because of its width, and the type of analysis performed, is considered to be worth reporting. The study was primarily undertaken to obtain comparable information about social science literature, and this has been reported elsewhere."
156,"Letter to the Editor: Assessment of Information Services May we please raise four questions which are important at the present time when government policy on information retrieval is being considered? These arise from results recently produced by SDC which are germane to Dr. Somerfield's paper on 'Computer-based Information Services' (Aslib Proceedings, 20, 12, 542-50 (1968)), and to OSTI's work in this field.  The SDC is making comparisons of the efficiency of various published indexes and other sources of scientific information and the first results of rigorously checked comparisons are becoming available for a case study on the subject of 'Computers Related to Mass Spectrometry'. This results from an extensive literature search prepared by combining and collating results of searches in twelve of the world's major indexes to chemistry and spectroscopy, including searches of SDC's own data bank files. Nearly two hundred unique references on 'Computers Related to Mass Spectrometry' were found and are being checked individually for relevance going back to the original paper or asking expert opinion where necessary."
157,"On the Design of Information Systems for Human Beings Planning of any kind can be motivated by a pressing practical problem which has to be solved - for example, an increasing number of people may have to be housed in the same area; or by a long-term idealistic vision; or by both (the idealist seeing the long-term implications of an immediate problem). In short-term planning, the danger exists that the more technical problems may be solved, without attention to their implications for human beings; to take my housing example, higher and higher flats may be built, without considering the possible effects (e.g. the effect on social groupings). In long-term planning, Utopian or ideological blueprints may be produced."
158,"Standard Costing for Information Systems: Background to a Current Study For some time past, interest has been developing within the Aslib Research Department in the problems of establishing standard costs for information systems. A literature search recently conducted by the Department (R. Reynolds) has revealed a scarcity of usable information on this subject: such data as is available is difficult to evaluate comparatively because of the differing definitions of the operations costed and of the terms used to describe them. It would seem, therefore, that a first step towards developing a costing method of widespread application would be the establishment of standard conventions for the analysis of information systems.  One might postulate two possible ways of arriving at comparative costs for these systems, namely: (a) General survey method: The overall costs of a large number of information   systems are broken down into a small number of categories, and analysed   for correlation (see, for example, C.J. Wessel et al). (b) In-depth study: A small number of systems are studied in detail in an   attempt to establish the true sources of the costs and factors affecting   them.  In a current project, we are attempting to apply method (b) to the production of current-awareness bulletins. An outline of some of the preliminary work in this project follows."
159,"An Information Retrieval Language for MARC I see from the programme that I am supposed to talk on an information  language for MARC, and it is true that the work I have been doing for the past year or so has been under the auspices of the MARC Project. But the subject indexing system we have developed is concerned as much with BNB's plans for computer production from 1971 as with the MARC tapes as such, and I hope to show that we have also gone some way towards developing a compatible general system with even wider application. Before coming to this, however, it is necessary to describe briefly some of the day to day pressures of work which caused BNB to look to the computer for help. From this we can see how the computer forced us to reconsider our whole approach to subject indexing."
160,"Analysis and Organization of Knowledge for Retrieval In a university, the mode of research is usually what is called 'pure' or 'basic' research; since I am keeping in mind primarily the applications of information science, I will prefer the word 'basic', although there is not so much difference. In such research, and really in any good research, one should not be collecting data haphazardly. One must isolate and define a problem and, as far as possible, control other conditions so that interfering factors are eliminated. Preferably one will narrow down the problem to manageable proportions. It is then essential to approach the problem with some sort of hypothesis or theory of the situation, and to concentrate on obtaining evidence for or against that hypothesis. The important task is to devise just that crucial experiment which will give the answer as efficiently as possible. If the answer disproves the hypothesis, one has at least further evidence upon which to construct a different hypothesis; if it confirms the hypothesis, one is ready for a further step forward, and so on. Research is easier in a fully controlled and reproducible situation; in a biological or human situation one must often have recourse to statistical methods, but this does not alter the general methodology. On the whole, I find a clear methodology lacking in much that is being done in the field of information science today."
161,"User Studies: A Review of the Literature from 1966 to 1970 My terms of reference when asked to prepare this review of user studies were to bring Fishenden's work up to date. This was published in the Journal of Documentation in September 1965 and in his paper he looks at a limited number of British use studies and draws some broad general conclusions relating to the development of a national information service. The present paper which covers the literature back to the beginning of 1966 is somewhat more detailed. It considers a wide range of investigations into the information gathering habits of scientists, engineers, social scientists and others, and reports results which it is hoped will provide managers with information on which to develop policies regarding library and information services at all levels. Although an increasing number of studies is being carried out in Eastern Europe and in the USSR there has been no major work reported and consequently the review considers mainly British and American investigations."
162,"Library and Information Science Abstracts: The First Two Years With the thirteenth issue affected by the recent postal strike, now seems an opportune moment to take a look at the performance of LISA in its first two years. This bi-monthly abstracts service succeeded the former Library Science Abstracts in 1969 as a joint venture between the Library Association and Aslib. A recount of its birth and a brief report on early progress both appeared in 1969."
163,"The Information Uses and Needs of Social Scientists: An Overview of INFROSS When INFROSS began in the autumn of 1967, although a large number of studies had been conducted into the requirements of scientists for information, very little had been done in the field of social science information. There are a number of possible reasons for this. Social scientists, faced with a much smaller total volume of information, were much less information-conscious and less inclined to seek for solutions. There are very few specialist libraries in the social sciences, and few librarians were therefore confronted with social scientists' information needs in the same way as librarians in scientific libraries were confronted with users and their problems. Finally, until OSTI came along there was little in the way of funds to support this kind of research. This almost total absence of previous research had its disadvantages and advantages. There were very few clues to guide us, and we were therefore working to a certain extent in the dark. On the other hand, we had a clean and open field uncorrupted by confusing and non-comparable studies. There is something to be said for being one of the first in a field."
164,"SDI: Some Economic and Organizational Aspects In the context of the present symposium it would seem appropriate that I should deal specifically with the economic aspects of Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI) operation and use. In my opinion the technical feasibility and merits of SDI have been adequately demonstrated; the main barriers hindering general use, however, tend to be of an economic nature.  At Shell Research in Sittingbourne we have been operating, since 1967, an SDI service for the research staff and it has grown rapidly, particularly since we started to use the CA Condensates tapes early in 1969. In addition to these tapes we are currently using the BA Previews tapes, AGDOC tapes (prepared by ourselves using punched card input received from Derwent) and, on an experimental basis, Toxitapes, produced by BIOSIS, Philadelphia. All these tapes are searched locally, involving the running of around five hundred profiles weekly."
165,"The Theoretical Foundation of the IDC-system:  Six Postulates for Information Retrieval Successful delegated searching for publications relevant to the topic of an inquirer obeys rules whose relations to thermodynamics are unmistakable. By the continuous growth of a documentation system in the physical and conceptual respect, steadily increasing demands are made on the degree of order which prevails in the system or can be established at the specific request of an inquirer. If the order in a system cannot keep pace with the increasing requirements, its working capability will continuously decrease, because the searcher is becoming more and more overburdened in relation to his available search time, search patience, and search memory. The degree of order attainable in a growing literature collection can be estimated on the basis of six postulates. The better the requirements imposed by these postulates are approximated in a practical documentation system, the higher are its working capability and life expectancy, but the expenditure to be made on the literature analyses must also inevitably be higher.  The establishment of these postulates originated from practical experience with the IDC-system and its precursors. These postulates form the basis of this system and of its further development."
166,"The Future of Scientific and Technological Publications I am sure you do not need reminding of the flood of scientific information that is available today and the estimates of its growth in the next two decades. In 1967, Olaf Helmer, then Senior Mathematician at the Rand corporation, forecast that scientists and engineers would increase from five million, in 1967, to twenty-five million by the year 2000 and their total productivity would go up by a factor of ten. He declined to assess the associated growth of, and need for, scientific information but merely stated that there would be substantial changes in the way in which science would actually be transacted. It is these 'substantial changes' that concern the publisher, editor, information scientist and librarian, because if we do not anticipate - or at least keep pace with these changes - then we will not be able to meet the information needs of our readers and we will become redundant. Scientific information is a growing industry and it would be ironic if we could not survive amid an abundance of information. I regard the chance to do something about the flow of information as a response to opportunity, not as an act of desperation. The big problem is to sort out what is pertinent among this information and, in this world of rapid change, select and develop the technological devices that will match the needs of the scientist to this mass of information."
167,Rationalization of Serial Holdings in Special Libraries This paper describes progress which has been made toward the development of a procedural model intended as a code of good practice to enable special librarians to effect economies in their journal holdings by systematically planned use of the BLL..  A theoretical model suggested by B. C. Brookes was tested on various sets of usage data from seven special libraries but the results proved to be unrealistic in terms of immediate provision to the user.. A new experimental approach has now been developed based on the total use versus total cost of a journal collection..
168,"Aspects of the Theory of Syntax The idea that a language is based on a system of rules determining the interpretation of its infinitely many sentences is by no means novel. Well over a century ago, it was expressed with reasonable clarity by Wilhelm von Humboldt in his famous but rarely studied introduction to general linguistics (Humboldt, 1836). His view that a language ""makes infinite use of finite means"" and that its grammar must describe the processes that make this possible is, furthermore, a outgrowth of a persistent concern, within rationalistic philosophy of language and mind, with this ""creative"" aspect of language use (for discussion, see Chomsky, 1964, forthcoming). What is more, it seems that even Panini's grammar can be interpreted as a fragment of such a ""generative grammar,"" in essentially the contemporary sense of this term.  This monograph is an exploratory study of various problems that have arisen in the course of work on transformational grammar, which is presupposed throughout as a general framework for the discussion. What is at issue here is precisely how this theory should be formulated. This study deals, then, with questions that are at the border of research in transformational grammar. For some, definite answers will be proposed; but more often the discussion will merely raise issues and consider possible approaches to them without reaching any definite conclusions."
169,"The Assault on Privacy The genesis of this book can be traced to a telephone call I received during the fall of 1966 from Dr. James G. Miller, then Director of the University of Michigan's Mental Health Institute and currently Vice President for Academic Affairs of Cleveland State University. He asked what I am sure he thought was a relatively straightforward and easily answered question: What are the legal consequences of computerizing copyrighted materials? On closer inquiry I discovered that Dr. Miller was exploring the possibility of using computer technology to develop a national, multi-media information network, that would electronically integrate our colleges and universities, eventually providing each of them a comprehensive and easily accessible pool of scholarly works and educational services. He subsequently sought to breathe life into this idea of promoting the formation of an organization called the Interuniversity Communications Council (EDUCOM)."
170,"An Assessment of Quality in Graduate Education Before this study was begun in the spring of 1964, serious deliberation was given to the question of American Council of Education sponsorship of an evaluation of selected graduate programs of major universities that comprise an important segment of the Council's membership. There was never any question about the need for doing in a systematic and objective way what necessarily goes on continually in any event, though usually in a piecemeal and more impressionistic way. Our Commission on Plans and Objectives for Higher Education, and other leading educators consulted, concluded that a thoroughgoing study should be made and that the Council's aegis was a suitable one."
171,"The Association of American Library Schools, 1915-1968: An Analytical History The growth of professions has been one of the sociological phenomena of the past century. As the strength of national professional associations of practitioners has increased, concern with education for the professions has prompted schools to develop standards and curricula to support the preparation of practitioners. During the half century spanning 1900 the schools in many professions formed national associations. The Association of American Medical Colleges, for example, was established in 1876. Other professional school associations followed: engineering (1893), law (1900), librarianship (1915), theology (1918), and social work (1919). These associations, to cite a few, have developed in different ways while conforming to general patterns and have reached various lvels of influence in affecting professional education."
172,"As We May Think As Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Dr. Vannevar Bush has coordinated the activities of some six thousand leading American scientists in the application of science to warfare. In this significant article he holds up an incentive for scientists when the fighting has ceased. He urges that men of science should then turn to the massive task of making more accessible our bewildering store of knowledge. For years inventions have extended man's physical powers rather than the powers of his mind. Trip hammers that multiply the fists, microscopes that sharpen the eye, and engines of destruction and detection are new results, but not the end results, of modern science. Now, says Dr.Bush, instruments are at hand which, if properly developed, will give man access to and command over the inherited knowledge of the ages. The perfection of these pacific instruments should be the first objective of our scientists as they emerge from their war work. Like Emerson's famous address of 1837 on ""The American Scholar,"" this paper by Dr. Bush calls for a new relationship between thinking man and the sum of our knowledge. - The Editor"
173,"Authoritarian Personality This is a book about social discrimination. But its purpose is not simply to add a few more empirical findings to an already extensive body of information. The central theme of the work is a relatively new concept - the rise of an ""anthropological"" species we call the authoritarian type of man. In contrast to the bigot of the older style he seems to combine the ideas and skills which are typical of a highly industrialized society with irrational or anti-rational beliefs. He is at the same time enlightened and superstitious, proud to be an individualist and in constant fear of not being like all the others, jealous of his independence and inclined to submit blindly to power and authority. The character structure which comprises these conflicting trends has already attracted the attention of modern philosophers and political thinkers. This book approaches the problem with the means of socio-psychological research."
174,"Automated Language Processing The idea for Automated Language Processing was suggested in 1964 at a time when the research efforts in information storage and retrieval were expanding at System Development Corporation. Many people in the company were directly interested in this area, and an even larger group had interests that were tangentially related. A quick and effective means of acquainting them with the state-of-the-art was needed, but no convenient compilation of relevant material was available. It was agreed that a book on the theory and techniques of information storage and retrieval procedures would be a worthwhile project for the language processing staff to undertake. Although no one member could reasonably be expected to cover the entire range of technical developments in this field, the staff as a whole is concerned with most phases of the work. This is attested by the fact that all but one of the chapter authors were connected with SDC either as employees or consultants. The single exception is Pendergraft, for SDC has had no sustained project in machine translation. SDC Management was enthusiastic in its support of the new project."
175,"Automatic Information, Organization and Retrieval Information retrieval is a field concerned with the structure, analysis, organization, storage, searching, and retrieval of information.  This book deals with the computer processing of large information files, with special emphasis on automatic text handling methods. Described in particular are procedures for dictionary construction and dictionary look-up, statistical and syntactic language analysis methods, information search and matching procedures, automatic information dissemination systems, and methods for user interaction with the mechanized system. As such, the text includes elements of linguistics, mathematics, and computer programming."
176,"Automated Keyword Classification for Information Retrieval This book is primarily a research monograph, in which the discussion of the main topics has been broadened so that they are related to their surrounding context in information retrieval as a whole; it is not a textbook, and no attempt has therefore been made to justify the choice of topic, or account for the use of certain concepts, or to provide an elementary description of either. For instance in Chapter 1, it is assumed that the reader is familiar with the idea of using keywords in information retrieval: I have not considered the relation between this kind of retrieval device and a controlled thesaurus or descriptor set, or that between the use of simple class lists as document descriptions and the use of descriptions with a syntactic structure, for example. Equally, in Chapter 2, I have made use of recall/precision ratios as a means of characterising retrieval performance, without justification or argument; but this does not mean that I am unaware of the difficulties of doing this, or of the attention which has been devoted to, and controversy which has raged round, this subject; it is simply that from the point of view of my main purpose it is reasonable to use these ratios."
177,"Automation in Libraries My purpose in writing this book has been to try to give an understanding of what automated systems can do in libraries today. I have limited myself strictly to those areas which are commonly termed ""library housekeeping"" - the processes of book ordering and cataloguing, periodicals accessioning and circulation control, whose purpose is to make a library into an efficient machine for acquiring, storing, and disseminating knowledge and information. These are the processes which can be automated here and now to improve the quality of service which a library can give to its readers. I hope that the descriptions and explanations given here will be of assistance to librarians in developing appropriate automated systems in their own libraries."
178,"The Automation Survey: Background and Conclusions During the past decade the Library of Congress, in common with many other research libraries, has become increasingly aware of pressures and strains in many of its operations. These areas of concern (well known to librarians) include mounting arrearages in cataloguing and other processing activities; increasing complexity of manual inventory control files; increasing difficulty in keeping card catalogues reasonably current and accurate; and increasing demands for a wide variety of services for a clientele whose needs for information have grown tremendously since World War II, and many of whom have only recently turned to large research libraries for help. Five years ago an internal committee of the Library of Congress was charged to study potential applications of electronic data processing equipment to Library procedures; subsequently representatives of three computer firms made brief studies of Library operations which intimated that certain areas could benefit substantially by automation."
179,"Automatic information, organization and retrieval This book deals with the computer processing of large information files, with special emphasis on automatic text handling methods. Described in particular are procedures for dictionary construction and dictionary look-up, statistical and syntactic language analysis methods, information search and matching procedures, automatic information dissemination systems, and methods for user interaction with the mechanized system. As such, the text includes elements of linguistics, mathematics, and computer programming."
180,"Automated Information-Retrieval Systems (IRS) It is easiest of all to apply mechanization and automation to the transmission, accumulation and search of information. Automation can also be extended to cover some more complicated functions. In all of these cases, the results supplied by automatic devices are analysed and decisions are taken usually by man. Thus, the role of machine is to considerably extend man's capabilities rather than to completely replace man.  The automated systems intended to accumulate and search for information have come to be called information-retrieval systems (IRS). These systems can also perform the simpler forms of data processing. The physical facilities of these systems are communications equipment, punched-card computers, microfilming equipment, and electronic computers, the latter playing the most prominent part."
181,"Medical School Library Statistics At the June 1962 Convention of the Medical Library Association in Chicago, Illinois, Mr. Stanley Truelson, now Librarian of the University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, circulated a petition requesting the collection and publication of medical school library statistics. Forty-eight medical school head librarians signed the petition indicating their approval, and a committee for this purpose was formed by Dr. Vilma Proctor, Chairman of the Medical School Libraries Group of the Medical Library Association.  This committee, composed of Mr. Truelson, Dr.Proctor, and myself, studied the questionnaires already in use, such as that of the U.S. Office of Education. These were rejected as not meeting the needs of our specialized group of libraries. As a guide for selecting the terminology in the questionnaire, we used the American Library Association's Definitions for Library Statistics; a Preliminary Draft (Chicago, 1961).  After several drafts, a sample questionnaire was approved by the committee and distributed to all the medical school libraries in the United States and Canada. The Canadian medical school libraries were included as a result of communications with Miss Doreen Fraser, Librarian of the Bio-Medical Library of the University of British Columbia and Dr. J. Wendell McLeod of the Association of Canadian Medical Colleges."
182,"The Contemporary Medical Society Library Four hundred sixty-eight medical societies in the United States were surveyed to determine those which sponsor libraries.. Seventy-eight libraries were identified, of which eighteen are ""marginal"" and nine are jointly supported by a medical school and a society, leaving fifty-one relatively ""substantial"" libraries whose major support is through society membership.. Characteristics measured include size of collection, types of media, staff, budget, services, and sources of support.. Questions are raised concerning the role of the medical library as one institution which participates in the continuing education of the physician.."
183,"Analysis of One Year's Circulation at the Downstate Medical Center Library A survey of the circulation of books and journals at the Downstate Medical Center Library was conducted, based on cancelled circulation cards accumulated during a one-year period.. Analysis of the results shows the frequency of use of various materials by several groups of borrowers and brings out important differences between circulation of books and that of journals.. One of the result was the compilation of a list of most frequently used journals.. The findings are graphically represented by several tables and charts.."
184,"How Biomedical Investigators Use Library Books Relatively few studies have been concerned with the use of biomedical books.. This paper reports an investigation into use made of library books by biomedical investigators.. Based on cancelled charge slips collected at the Yale Medical Library circulation desk, telephone appointments were made to interview those research investigators whose books has been returned the previous day.. The interviewer obtained answers from the investigator to a questionnaire to discover how the investigator had learned of a book, if the book had been useful, and, if useful, how it had been used.. During the six-month study period, 30.4 percent of researchers' volumes returned were monographs.. Almost four-fifths of books borrowed supplied information wanted, and about four-fifths of books used had been printed in the previous decade.. Nine-tenths of the use of books was research-related, the other tenth being for lecture preparation.."
185,"An Investigation of the Educational Needs of Health Sciences Library Manpower:  I. Definition of the Manpower Problem and Research Desing In order to plan adequately for education in health science librarianship and to be able to project future demands and needs we need to know a great deal more about existing manpower in health science libraries.. This paper, the first in a series of reports on an investigation to gather this data, discusses the research methodology and the development of an inventory of the institution program population upon which the survey is based.. An analysis in terms of geographic location, type (educational, research, etc.), administrative control, and primary cognate area of these institutions is presented, and their distribution through the various Regional Medical Library areas is noted.. Preliminary estimates are made, based on questionnaire to the libraries, on the size of the library population, their relationship to reporting programs or institutions, exclusive of the hospital population which is being covered in an independent survey.. A questionnaire to library personnel is underway which will establish, along with the other questionnaires, a basis for exploring the relationships which exist between institutions or programs, libraries and manpower.."
186,"An Investigation of the Educational Needs of Health Science Library Manpower:  II. Health-Related Institutions and Their Library Resources As part of an investigation of health sciences library manpower, the universe of health-related institutions and programs (excluding hospitals) was surveyed by postcard questionnaire to produce an inventory and description of libraries providing services to these institutions reported access to library resources, indicating usage of some 2,207 non-hospital libraries.. Eighty percent (2,431) of the institutions reported that the library used was ""within"" their own institution; 20 percent (608) noted that the library was ""outside"" of their institution..  The distribution of health-related institutions and libraries is shown by RML districts, together with relevant census data.. A classification of libraries, based on the degree of involvement of the libraries' facilities, resources and personnel in supplying services to health-related institutions, was developed..  It is concluded that projections of manpower needs should take into account institutions and programs not at present possessing health sciences libraries as well as documented demand in existing health sciences libraries.."
187,"An Investigation of the Educational Needs of Health Sciences Library Manpower:  III. Manpower Supply and Demand in Health Sciences Libraries An investigation of the manpower requirements of health sciences libraries and of educational programs appropriate to these manpower needs was begun in March 1968.. To data, 4,727 libraries have been identified as being used by 14,000 health sciences institutions and programs.. Of this total, 2,628 are hospital libraries; 1,328 are health sciences libraries; and 771 are academic or public libraries..  Within these libraries some 14,938 persons are directly involved, either full- or part-time, in the delivery of health sciences library services.. Of the total work force, 5,861 persons are employed in hospital libraries and 9,077 are employed in health sciences libraries and collections.. The ratio between professional and nonprofessional employees is 1:2; professional and nonprofessional status was assigned by the chief librarian.. Survey data indicate a 7 percent manpower shortage in positions classified as professional, and a 3 percent shortage in positions classified as nonprofessional.."
188,"An Investigation of the Educational Needs of Health Sciences Library Manpower:  IV. Characteristics of Manpower in Health Sciences Libraries A statistical description based on a mail survey of personnel in 2,099 health sciences libraries located outside of the hospital setting is reported.. Respondents to the survey were divided into three groups: professionals (those possessing a graduate library degree); nonprofessionals (those not possessing graduate library degree); and chief librarians (those responsible for a library's operations).. Survey items dealt with education, sex, age, salary, job mobility and preference for continuing education programs..  Some 60 percent of the respondents were professionals; 40 percent were nonprofessionals.. Seven hundred and twenty-eight chief librarians were identified in the population: 57 percent were professional librarians while the remainder were without a graduate library degree.. Approximately 1/5 of all survey respondents were men.. The age distribution for the work force tended to be bimodal, reflecting the career patterns of women and the later entry of men into librarianship.. The annual salary for male professionals was calculated at $12,732; for female professionals at $10,044; for male nonprofessionals at $7,878; and for female nonprofessionals at $6,313.. Male professionals were found to have the highest rates of job and geographic mobility.. Conversely, female nonprofessionals were lowest in mobility.. In expressing a preference for continuing education programs in library science, professionals tended to request courses dealing with the organization of libraries, health sciences institutions and their relationships, while nonprofessionals inclined towards courses in technical processing.."
189,"Selected list of Books and Journals for the Small Medical Library This updated list of 410 books and 136 journals is intended as a selection aid for the small library of a hospital, medical society, clinic, or similar organization.. Books and journals are arranged by subject, with the books followed by an author index, and the journals by an alphabetical title listing.. Items suggested for first purchase by smaller libraries are noted by an asterisk..  To purchase the entire collection of books and to pay for the annual subscription costs of all the journals would require an expenditure of about 12,000.. To acquire only those items suggested for first purchase, approximately $3,250 would be needed.."
190,"MEDLINE Evaluation Study MEDLINE (MEDLARS-ON-LINE) is the new on-line, interactive bibliographic searching system which was recently developed by the National Library of Medicine.. The system provides users with lists of bibliographical citations and other information from a three-year file of over 1,250 biomedical journals.. A survey testing user reactions was conducted at the University of Virginia Medical Library.. The results of the survey are based on replies by 246 users who requested one or more MEDLINE searches between September 1972 and March 1973.. The findings indicate that over 93% believe that MEDLINE is a substantial improvement over the traditional methods of searching through the printed indexes.. These respondents also stated that the results of MEDLINE searches had assisted them in their clinical or research work, or both.. Asked whether they would continue to use MEDLINE after the imposition of user charges on July 1, 1973, about 75% said that they would.. The remaining 25% expressed some reservation and doubts.. The survey gives reason to believe that with the imposition of user charges the use of MEDLINE will decline.."
191,"MEDLEARN: An Orientation to MEDLINE ***MEDLEARN***, an orientation to MEDLINE, was developed to educate members of the biomedical community to become competent on-line searchers.. It appears in two complementary forms: an interactive terminal presentation available on the TYMSHARE Network and a supporting hard-copy manual which contains the didactic portions of the computer program as well as additional items which are not suitable for on-line presentation.. ***MEDLEARN***, a flexible instruction tool, is divided into forty sections which may be selected in various sequences depending on the user's previous experience.. Two MEDLINE simulations and feedback sections after practice on MEDLINE provide motivation for continued learning.. The orientation program was evaluated at several medical centers with uniformly favorable results.."
192,A Cooperative Serial Acquisition Program: Thoughts on a Response to Mounting Fiscal Pressures A regionally cooperative method of distributing responsibility for every serial title in a region is outlined.. The system assures the equitable distribution of the number of titles for which each library is committed.. Later refinements suggest an equalization of cost commitments on the basis of fiscal resources available for serial purchases.. It is pointed out that fiscal realities will force some sort of serial acquisition cooperation for all viable medical libraries..
193,Use of Medical and Biological Journals in the Yale Medical Library This paper presents data for the end of 1960 on recorded use of some two hundred of the most often used scientific and medical journals in the Yale Medical Library. The investigation was designed to identify the most abundantly used titles of recent date of publication to guide the acquisition of multiple subscriptions. At the same time data was collected to distinguish heavily used back sets.
194,"The Evaluation of Published Indexes and Abstract Journals:    Criteria and Possible Procedures This paper describes possible criteria by which the effectiveness of a published index may be evaluated and suggest procedures that might be used to conduct an evaluation of a published index.. The procedures were developed for the National Library of Medicine and relate specifically to the recurring bibliographies produced by MEDLARS in various specialized areas of biomedicine.. The methods described should, however, be applicable to other printed indexes and abstract journals..  Factors affecting the performance of a published index are also discussed and some research projects relevant to the evaluation of published indexes are reviewed.."
195,"World Biomedical Journals, 1951-60:   A Study of the Relative Significance of 1,388 Titles Indexed in   Current List of Medical Literature This study is an application of the relationship of serial articles published to serial articles cited, developed in theory in the author's ""Statistical Bibliography in the Health Sciences"" (BULLETIN 50: 450-461, July 1962).. A ranked list of the indexes of significance of most of the serials indexed in Current List of Medical Literature was derived and erected from 21,000 citations secured in a random sampling of 1962 and 1961 biomedical journals regularly received in the Yale Medical Library.. The author measures the gross indexing effectiveness of Current List against his indexes of significance , offers his method and results as means to reach objective standards for indexing and abstracting, and projects his results as measures of general value of the serials analyzed.."
196,Basic Journal List for Small Hospital Libraries This Basic Journal List of forty-eight journal titles is intended as a selection guide for the librarian of the small hospitals.. It is based on a survey of physicians in Virginia who were asked to review journal titles contained in the 1967 edition of a list compiled by Mr. Alfred N. Brandon.. The List is designed for the library in a hospital of from 100 to 300 beds and for the active clinician..
197,"AIM-TWX service at the University of Virginia:    A Review and Evaluation The paper reviews the highlights of a four-week trial period (November 19 - December 18, 1970) during which the Medical Library of the University of Virginia experimented with a new remote-access bibliographical control and retrieval system via its TWX machine.. The system, called AIM-TWX, was sponsored by the Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications and utilized a time-shared IBM 360/67 computer in Santa Monica, California.. Citations from 109 clinically-oriented journals from 1966 to date, including those currently included in the Abridged Index Medicus, may be retrieved either on- or off-line..  Various aspects of this service are described, including problems of staffing, training, and record keeping, as well as the role of the MeSH vocabulary which is the principle ""language"" of the man-computer dialog..  The statistical results indicated that the system was used for approximately 200 minuted on nineteen days and that an average of sixteen searches were run on any given day, or about 4.6 searches per hour of use.. In spite of an inexperienced staff who had little knowledge of the MeSH vocabulary and whose training schedule was limited to one four-hour session, the experiment was highly successful in terms of searches and citations..  At the end of the period, 298 searches had been run for 114 requestors, and 5,343 citations had been produced.. Only fifty-five searches yielded no citations.. The experiment generated a great deal of excitement and interest among the staff of the Library and of the Medical Center.. Moreover, a large number of medical practitioners in large and small communities of Virginia participated in this experiment, indicating that there exists a great demand for this type of literature searching which AIM-TWX is able to provide with great rapidity.."
198,"Choosing Physiology Journals For many years administrators of library collections have sought objective criteria for assembling well-rounded periodical collections in the subject fields represented by their collections. The nearest approach to any criterion which does away with the a priori knowledge of the specialist was first suggested by Gross and Gross in 1927. This method consists, essentially, of counting the bibliographic citations at the conclusions of the articles in a basic periodical of the field under consideration, and of arranging the journals cited in order of the frequency of their citation. Thus, in the field of chemistry, the references in the Journal of the American Chemical Society are counted and a list is made of the most frequently cited journals. According to Gross and Gross, the journals which are cited most frequently in the Journal of the American Chemical Society are the most valuable journals for a library to purchase in order to possess a well-rounded collection in chemistry.  Although the Gross and Gross method has been in use for almost twenty years, the fundamental assumptions upon which the method is based have never been examined. These assumptions are: 1. The value of a periodical to a professional worker is in direct  proportion to the number of times it is cited in the professional  literature. 2. The journal or journals used as the base for the tabulation are  representative of the entire field. 3. If more than one journal is used as a base, all of them can be weighted  equally."
199,"Statistical Bibliography in the Health Sciences The sustained interest in documentation, as a key to the retrieval of information in the literature of the sciences, has obscured largely the potential utility of statistical bibliography as a method of analyzing information needs. In the belief that a discussion of the latter may be of value to interested biomedical librarians and scientists, a review of investigative methods and results in the health sciences is offered here.  Statistical bibliography may be defined as the assembling and interpretation of statistics relating to books and periodicals; it may be used in a variety of situations for an almost unlimited number of measurements. Within the last forty years bibliographical statistics have been collected and explained in several fields of science for these main purposes: to demonstrate historical movements, to determine the national or universal research use of books and journals, and to ascertain in many local situations the general use of books and journals."
200,"Mechanization of Library Procedures in the Medium-sized Medical Library Mechanical means for expediting library work have been considered for many years, as an examination of the early pages of Library Journals bears out. The very first volume of the forerunner of the Bulletin, the Medical Library and Historical Journal, moreover, contained an article on the use of the ""typewriting machine"" in cataloging. Telephones have long been accepted as library machines, and, except for unusual items, hand bookbinding has given way to machine-bound books.  Nevertheless, when the term ""machine methods"" is used for libraries today, the prevailing idea is that expensive and complicated electronic equipment must be employed, and, since few libraries are able to afford such equipment for themselves, it is generally assumed that none but the largest libraries (the Library of Congress or the National Library of Medicine, for example) will be able to employ already existing mechanical methods or devise systems specifically applicable to their own situations."
201,"Moderately and Heavily Used Biomedical Journals The purpose of this investigation was to produce a title list of current journals suppling upwards of 75 percent of demand at the Columbia and Yale Medical Libraries.. Columbia received nearly 2,000 journals and Yale over 1,500; findings are based upon an analysis of canceled charge slips for issues published from 1959 through June 1962.. This combined study of recorded usage for six months in the Columbia Medical Library (12.9 percent of circulation during January through June 1962) and for one year in the Yale Medical Library (12.5 percent of 1961/62 circulation) revealed that a core of 262 journals supplied 80 percent of use of titles published in the 1959 to mid-1962 period.. However, it is probable that current issues of all titles received were used at least once within the libraries.. Titles of sixty-seven journals which supplied slightly more than 50 percent of use are listed.."
202,"Medical Libraries and the Assessment of User Needs Users of information in science and technology have been studied in great detail with respect to material read, amount of time spent in reading and searching the literature, categories of questions asked, an so on.. Probing for this information has been undertaken by means of structured and unstructured interviews, diaries, surveys, and questionnaires..  Although a large amount of data has emerged on information usage and flow, the subjective response of scientists furnishes comment only on the satisfaction produced by present information services and does not yield insight into the extent to which needs remain unsatisfied.. Relevance figures based upon the response of systems to questions cannot be equated with satisfaction of needs, since questions constitute, in most cases, inadequate representations of underlying information needs..  Assessment of the needs of users of medical libraries and information system must, in fact, be made in relation to the observed behavior and experience of biomedical scientists.. There is room for well-designed experimentation which can explore the interaction of both psychological and environmental factors.. Significant differences in information needs exist among and between individuals such as researches and clinicians in the same environment.. With respect to environment, it is hypothesized that the information needs for medical practitioners in remote areas might differ significantly from those of their colleagues working in large metropolitan centers in close proximity to medical schools, research institutions, and other rich sources of information fallout..  It is anticipated that experimentation will eventually result in a methodology which will permit the determination and prediction of the information needs of any identified groups of users in a specific environment.."
203,"Analysis of Recorded Biomedical Book and Journal Use in the Yale Medical Library Part I. Date and Subject Relations Analysis of book and journal circulation is based on cancelled charge slips collected over a one-year period in the Yale Medical Library.. About two-fifths of material circulated	were monographs.. Books and journals in seven subject fields provided over half of the circulation.. Approximately two-thirds of both books and journals used had been published during the most recent nine years.. A subject-by-subject examination of the ratio of books to journals circulating revealed that, in subject where proportionally more journals than books were taken out of the Library, books were of more recent imprint dates than were journals, contrary to the overall pattern.. Date distribution of books and journals by subject was also studied.. Results are illustrated with graphs and tables.."
204,"Analysis of Recorded Biomedical Book and Journal Use in the Yale Medical Library Part II. Subject and User Relations Cancelled charge slips collected over a one-year period supply the data for this analysis of circulation in the Yale Medical Library.. Full-time teacher faculty are the heaviest users of journal literature, and students, of monograph literature.. Faculties of Medical School departments are compared in terms of their use of material in individual subjects.. Subject literatures are analyzed in terms of groups of users borrowing from them.. The extent to which journal titles used by medical students are also used by Medical School faculty is examined.. One of the products of the study is a rank list of journal titles used in the Library.. Results are presented in several tables.."
205,"The Circulation Analysis of Serial Use: Numbers Game or Key to Service? The conventionally erected and reported circulation analysis of serial use in the individual and the feeder library is found to be statistically invalid and misleading, since it measures neither the intellectual use of the serial's contents nor the physical handlings or serial units, and is nonrepresentative of the in-depth library use of serials.. It fails utterly to report or even to suggest the relation of intralibrary and interlibrary serial resources.. The actual mechanics of the serial use analysis, and the active variables in the library situation which affect serial use, are demonstrated in a simulated analysis and are explained at length.. A positive design is offered for the objective gathering and reporting of data on the local intellectual use and physical handling of serials and the relating of resources.. Data gathering in the feeder library, and implications for the extension of the feeder library's resources, are discussed.."
206,"Development of Methodologic Tools for Planning and Managing Library Services: I. Project Goals and Approach In July 1966, the Institute for Advancement of Medical Communication began work on a project aimed at developing methods for collecting objective data suitable for planning and guiding local, regional, and national programs to improve biomedical libraries and the biomedical information complex.. This article constitutes an introduction to a series of reports on the methodologic tools that have been developed.. It describes the overall purpose and initial goals of the project, gives the general plan of the work, and presents five basic concepts that underlie the project's approach and structure the entire effort.."
207,"Development of Methodologic Tools for Planning and Managing Library Services: II. Measuring a Library's Capability for Providing Documents A method of measuring a library's capability for providing the documents its users need has been developed.. The library is tested with representative sample of such documents to determine how long would be required for users to obtain these documents.. Test results are expressed in terms of a Capability Index, which has a maximal value of 100 only if all the sample documents are found ""on shelf"".. Specific tests employing samples of 300 documents have been developed that are appropriate for academic an for ""reservoir"" biomedical libraries.. Realistic field trials have demonstrated that these two tests are practical to administer and that test results are adequately reproducible.. When strict comparability is not important, a library can test itself.. In assessing a reservoir library, test results are supplemented by data on its typical processing time for interlibrary loan requests.. Currently these tests are being used in a national survey.. The general method is applicable to other types of libraries, provided appropriate test samples are established.. If their limitations are clearly understood, these ""Document Delivery Tests"" can be valuable tools for planning and managing library services.."
208,"Development of Methodologic Tools for Planning and Managing Library Services: III. Standardized Inventories of Library Services A standardized procedure was developed for eliciting those details for a library's service policies that are important to its users and for recording the data by checking appropriate categories on a form.. This inventory procedure covers the entire spectrum of user services and accommodates a wide range of policies.. The inventory was originally designed for use by trained interviewers in large-scale surveys of academic medical libraries.. However, it is also suitable for other kinds of libraries, and the Interview Guide and Checklist can be used for a self-survey by library stuff.. In addition to survey use, the inventory has a variety of educational, administrative, managerial, and research applications.. A methods for weighting the categorical inventory data to reflect the relative desirability of different policies makes it possible to calculate scores indicating how a library's policies compare with those of an ""optimal"" library.. An analogous inventory of the services a library provides to other libraries was developed for surveying major backup resources in the medical library system.."
209,"Survey of the Card Catalog in Medical Libraries A survey of present uses and arrangement of medical library card catalogs was made in order to determine current practices and trends.. Attention was focused on the influences of MeSH on the card catalog.. The results indicate that the prevalent type of card catalog found in medical libraries is the divided catalog.. In addition, it appears that this catalog arrangement is gaining acceptance, and the trend is toward division.. MeSH has an effect on the organization of the card catalog; libraries indicate that it is an influential factor in the decision to divide the catalog.."
210,"Survey of Medical Literature Borrowed from the National Lending Library for Science and Technology This paper reports the results of a four-week questionnaire survey carried out at the National Lending Library (N.L.L.), Great Britian, to discover which types of organizations were the principal users of medical literature, what types of literature were used, and which were the main sources of references to medical publications..Industrial organizations and universities accounted for the majority (62 percent) of the loans, most of which were English-language periodicals published since 1960.. For the whole sample, citation list in periodical articles were the principal sources of references, although for literature published in the last fifteen months, abstracting and indexing journals were the main sources.. Of the latter, Index Medicus proved to be the most fruitful source of references.. By asking whether the item requested was really useful to their work, a measure of the reliability of the different sources of references was obtained..  Appendixes include the questionnaire, a list of the most frequently borrowed journals, and a list of abstracting and indexing journals used as sources of references.."
211,"A Regional Medical Library Network The raison d'etre for cooperative networks is discussed, and the development of the SUNY Biomedical Communication Network is traces briefly; a description of the system and its products is given.. The cooperative cataloging program engaged in with the Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine and the National Library of Medicine is described, as are the efforts of the Network in the production of regional and state-wide union lists of serials.."
212,"Thesaural Problems in an On-Line System This paper describes the construction of a synonym thesaurus or entry vocabulary for the SUNY Biomedical Communication Network, which will permit the user greater ease of access to MeSH-indexed material without previously consulting a printed list of indexed terms.. In order to discover the actual terminalogy used by a researcher, words were extracted from titles of articles appearing in Index Medicus, and compared with the subject heading under which they appeared.. As well as strict synonyms, grammatical variants were also included.. Work is continuing on relating other indexing vocabularies, such as Excerpta Medica and Current Medical Terminalogy, used in the biomedical world to MeSH terms.."
213,The Role of the Medical Librarian in SDI Systems Many ongoing selective dissemination systems designers assume that the librarian can be omitted from active participation in execution of the master plan.. ISI's four years of experience with ASCA service have shown that librarians must be an integral part of the system and engage in a active dialogue between users and the machine.. Specific examples of how librarians can best serve the information needs of scientists using SDI systems are examined.. It is the basic contention of this paper that the librarian should serve as an intermediary between users and the numerous new information media.. In this manner the librarian can filter and translate the requirements of individual scientists to conform with the inherent limitations of all machine systems while exploiting their capabilities to the fullest..
214,"Library Participation in a Biomedical Communication and Information Network The experience of two libraries participating in the SUNY Biomedical Communication Network is described.. The history of the Network if briefly given together with its original aims and their current status.. Use of the terminals and formulation of queries are explained.. Figures are given for total costs, number of searches performed, and cost per search.. There is a account of the internal structure of the administration of the Network.."
215,"Selected Reference Aids for Small Medical Libraries This annotated list of 178 items is compiled as a guide to the development of the reference collection in a small medical library..  Arrangement, following the pattern of the previous revision, is by broad subject groups.. Titles are chiefly in English.. Textbooks in subject fields have been omitted since these are covered adequately in several comprehensive guides to the literature.."
216,"Coordination of Regional Libraries with Regional Medical Program Projects The Medical Library Assistance Act authorized the Regional Medical Library Program to improve information services in health fields, as well as other programs designed to help the health worker.. Both the RMLP and the Regional Medical Program are based on regional cooperation to enhance the value of available resources, and to enable health workers away from main centers to use them.. Services with Regional Medical Libraries must supply are described.. As this program develops, more than conventional library services will be provided..  Regional Medical Programs stress the continuing education of health-related personnel, and their need for health information; libraries are necessarily involved in such programs.. The regions of the RMP are smaller than those of the RMLP, and the smaller regional focus may be an advantage..  Specific examples of the coordination of library services and library- oriented programs are given.."
217,"User Services Offered By Medical School Libraries in 1968: Results of a National Survey Employing New Methodology The breadth and depth of services that ninety-two medical school libraries offer to individual user were ascertained by interviewing the heads of these libraries, employing a standardized inventory procedure developed earlier (Bulletin 56:380-403, Oct.1968).. Selected aspects of the descriptive data obtained on services to faculty and to medical students are presented and commented upon.. Comparisons with the findings of earlies surveys suggest that increases in the stuffs and budgets of medical school libraries over the past two decades have gone largely to supporting a rapidly increasing volume of service, rather than to any striking increase in the breadth and depth of services.. To facilitate summarization and comparisons among libraries the descriptive data were weighted and converted to quantitative measures; the weighting scheme was established by a group of five academic medical librarians to reflect the relative values the group assigned to different services.. One these quantitative measures, the percentage score for overall services relative to the optimal library, summarizes a library,s services in a single figure.. On this measure, medical school libraries ranged from 38 percent to 87 percent; the median overall score was 63 percent.. Results of some exploratory analysis are described; these analyses attempted ti find explanations for the observed differences among libraries and among geographical regions on the quantitative measures.. Present and potential uses of the survey data for managerial and research purposes are discussed.. One of the most important of these uses is in establishing and implementing standards - activities which should be carried out by the library profession itself - and recommendations are made for a program of such activities that is appropriate for the Medical Library Association.."
218,"The National Biomedical Communications Network as a Developing Structure The National Biomedical Communications Network has evolved both from a set of conceptual recommendations over the last twelve years and an accumulation of needs manifesting themselves in the requests of members of the medical community.. With a short history of three years this network and its developing structure have exhibited most of the stresses of technology interfacing with customer groups, and of a structure attempting to build itself upon many existing fragmentary unconnected segments of a potentially viable resource- sharing capability..  In addition to addressing these topics, the paper treats a design appropriate to any network devoted to information transfer in a special interest user community.. It discusses fundamentals of network design, highlighting that network structure most appropriate to a national information network.. Examples are given of cost analyses of information services and certain conjectures are offered concerning the roles of national networks.."
219,"Selected Lists of Journals for the Small Medical Library: A Comparative Analysis The results of a survey and weighted summary of all major suggested journal subscription lists for hospital libraries are described.. A total of ninety-one titles taken from 225 titles examined is listed under thirty-three subject headings.. Contrasts are made for the titles and subject headings employed by others, and the potential of Stearns' ""core collection"" concept for small medical libraries is dealt with in detail.."
220,"The Medical Library Assistance Act: An Analysis of the NLM Extramural Programs, 1965-1970 The imbalance between medical library resources and information needs of the health professional led to a reexamination of the mandate for the National Library of Medicine.. Legislation known as the Medical Library Assistance Act (MLAA) was passed in 1965 which enabled the NLM to (1) initiate programs to assist the nation's medical libraries and (2) develop a medical library network with the establishment of regional medical libraries to link the NLM with local institutions..  The National Library of Medicine, through the MLAA, has made available $40.8 million to the medical library community under a competitive grant and contract mechanism for the period July 1965 - June 1970.. A total of 604 projects has been executed in resources, research and development, training, construction, regional medical libraries, publications, and special scientific projects.. An assessment is given of each of these programs and their impact on both the National Library of Medicine and individual medical libraries.. In the aggregate, these programs have significantly improved library and information services to the professional health user.. The principal limitation has been inadequate funding to accomplish the level of originally stated objectives.."
221,"A Bookshelf in Public Health, Medical Care, and Allied Fields This bibliography of nonserial publications consists of 610 annotations.. It is intended as a guide to the development of a collection for librarians and for health professionals in research and education.. References are mostly to publications from 1960.. Titles are in English.. Both primary and secondary sources are cited.."
222,"Review of Criteria Used to Measure Library Effectiveness This article reports the results of survey of literature on measures of library effectiveness.. This survey led to the formulation of six criterion concepts (accessibility, cost, user satisfaction, response time, cost/benefit ratio and use).. The advantages and disadvantages of each method of measurement are discussed.. Several points which became clear during the analysis are discussed.. First, there is a relative lack of concern with the rationale behind the evaluation process, although the results invariably lead to a confused interpretation when there is no clear understanding of the purpose of an evaluation.. Second, the total library system is rarely considered; instead, each evaluation criterion is taken in isolation rather than as part of the whole.. Third, the library's preservation function has not been considered at all.."
223,"Document Delivery Capabilities of Major Biomedical Libraries in 1968: Results of a National Survey Employing Standardized Tests The standardized Document Delivery Tests (DDT's) developed earlier (Bulletin 56: 241-267, July 1968) were employed to assess the capability of ninety-two medical school libraries for meeting the document needs of biomedical researchers, and the capability of fifteen major resource libraries for filling I-L requests from biomedical libraries.. The primary test data are summarized as statistics on the observed availability status of the 300 plus documents in the test samples, and as measures expressing capability as a function of the mean time that would be required for users to obtain test sample documents.. A mathematical model is developed in which the virtual capability of a library, as seen by its users, equals the algebraic sum of the basic capability afforded by its holdings; the combined losses attributable to use of its collection, processing, relative inaccessibility, and housekeeping problems; and the gain realized by coupling with other resources (I-L borrowing).. For a particular library, or group of libraries, empirical values for each of these variables can be calculated easily from the capability measures and the status statistics.. Regression equations are derived that provide useful predictions of basic capability from collection size.. The most important result of this work is that cost-effectiveness analyses can now be used as practical decision aids in managing a basic library service.. A program of periodic surveys and further development of DDT's is recommended as appropriate for the Medical Library Association.."
224,"The Implementation, Evaluation, and Refinement of a Manual SDI Service The Missouri Institute of Psychiatry Library has implemented an inexpensive, manual SDI (Selective Dissemination of Information) service based upon the monthly issues of Index Medicus.. The implementation and refinement of the system are documented, and the very favorable response to the system is examined.. The SDI service is compared to Current Contents, with the finding that 60 percent of the SDI participants prefer it to Current Contents.. For this select portion of researchers the Index Medicus SDI is the more suitable mode of current awareness.. For a significant portion of the MIP staff, however, the score of Index Medicus is too restricted to suitable replace Current Contents.. All SDI users find it highly acceptable curent awareness service for use in addition to Current Contents and have indicated the desire to continue participation in the service.."
225,"A Method of Estimating the In-House Use of the Periodical Collection in the University of Minnesota Bio-Medical Library During two one-week periods in April 1972, information on periodical title and date was gathered from periodicals collected from study and reshelving tables of the University of Minnesota Bio-Medical Library.  It was determined that: (1) a few titles accounted for most of the total use; (2) the relationship between age and amount of use of a journal may be described by the equation y = ke**(-bx); and (3) the last five years of publication accounted for 58% of the total use."
226,"A Behavioral Approach to Historical Analysis To issue a clarion call for historians to adopt a behavioral approach to their subject may seem as up-to-date and exciting as last month's newspaper, for it is the academic fashion today to argue the utility of social science theory in the writing of history. Books and articles issue forth from the presses in seeming profusion advocating and even occasionally demonstrating such an approach. Yet these many pages fail in three significant ways to accomplish the end they nominally espouse and which I urge."
227,"A Behavioral Theory of the Firm This book is about the business firm and the way it makes economic decisions. We propose to make detailed observations of the procedures by which firms make decisions and to use these observations as a basis for a theory of decision making within business organizations. Our articles of faith are simple. We believe that, in order to understand contemporary economic decision making, we need to supplement the study of market factors with an examination of the internal operation of the firm - to study the effects of organizational structure and conventional practice on the development of goals, the formation of expectations, and the execution of choices."
228,"A Mathematical Theory of Communication The recent development of various methods of modulation such as PCM and PPM which exchange bandwidth for signal-to-noise ratio has intensified the interest in a general theory of communication. A basis for such a theory is contained in the important papers of Nyquist and Hartley on this subject. In the present paper we will extend the theory to include a number of new factors, in particular the effect of noise in the channel, and the savings possible due to the statistical structure of the original message and due to the nature of the final destination of the information.  The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point. Frequently the messages have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem. The significant aspect is that the actual message is one selected from a set of possible messages. The system must be designed to operate for each possible selection, not just the one which will actually be chosen since this is unknown at the time of design."
229,"A Mathematical Theory of Communication In this final installment of the paper we consider the case where the signals or the messages or both are continuously variable, in contrast with the discrete nature assumed until now. To a considerable extent the continuous case can be obtained through a limiting process from the discrete case by dividing the continuum of messages and signals into a large but finite number of small regions and calculating the various parameters involved on a discrete basis. As the size of the regions is decreased these parameters in general approach as limits the proper values for the continuous case. There are, however, a few new effects that appear and also a general change of emphasis in the direction of specialization of the general results to particular cases.  We will not attempt, in the continuous case, to obtain our results with the greatest generality, or with the extreme rigor of pure mathematics, since this would involve a great deal of abstract measure theory and would obscure the main thread of the analysis. A preliminary study, however, indicates that the theory can be formulated in a completely axiomatic and rigorous manner which includes both the continuous and discrete cases and many others. The occasional liberties taken with limiting processes in the present analysis can be justified in all cases of practical interest."
230,Between MLS and PhD; a Study of Sixth-Year Specialist Programs in Accredited Library Schools The intent of this survey is to describe educational practice (to spring 1969) in the emerging sixth-year specialist programs in library schools accredited by the American Library Association.
231,"Bibliographic Control of Nonprint Media Educational systems specialists lament the deplorable lack of organization of nonprint media for utilization in the learning process. Audiovisual personnel have, out of despair, made a painful entry into the world of bibliography while librarians, long experienced in the bibliographic control of printed matter, still appear preoccupied with more conventional forms of information and reluctant to turn their expertise to the organization of nonprint media."
232,"Bibliographic Control of Microforms Bibliographic control of microforms is a foremost need in today's library world. Despite the rapidly increasing quantity of materials and their bibliographic complexity, the methods for controlling microforms on all levels - local, national, and international - are inadequate."
233,"On a Class of Skew Distribution Functions It is the purpose of this paper to analyse a class of distribution functions that appears in a wide range of empirical data - particularly data describing sociological, biological and economic phenomena. Its appearance is so frequent, and the phenomena in which it appears so diverse, that one is led to the conjecture that if these phenomena have any property in common it can only be a similarity in the structure of the underlying probability mechanisms. The empirical distributions to which we shall refer specifically are: (A) distributions of words in prose samples by their frequency of occurrence, (B) distributions of scientists by number of papers published, (C) distributions of cities by population, (D) distributions of incomes by size, and (E) distributions of biological generally by number of species."
234,"Book Availability and the Library User The essentially logistical problem of making library books physically available when wanted by library users is central to librarianship. This book is a tentative attempt to provide a treatise on this problem. As such it has to deal with both theoretical analysis and the practicality of solutions. No apology is made for the attention devoted to theoretical analysis, because the author believes that a clear conceptual understanding of the factors involved is important for improved librarianship. The fact that analytical models are not always usable does not mean that the insight that can sometimes be derived from such analyses will not lead to a better understanding of the problems and, thereby, to improved library services."
235,"Book Catalogs In the intervening years since the appearance of the first collection of papers concerning book catalogs (Kingery, Robert E., and Tauber, Maurice F., Book Catalogs, N.Y., The Scarecrow Press, 1963), attention has been concentrated on the book catalog as a substitute for, or an auxiliary to the card catalog.  This selection of papers has identified some of the efforts to solve particular problems concerned with book catalogs. The published papers, as well as those which have been written specifically for this volume, bring additional observations concerning the place of the book catalog in library services."
236,"Book Publishing: What it Is, What it Does We speak of book publishing as an industry and as a profession. Both designations are certainly appropriate. Book publishing is a business conducted, for the most part, for profit. But its practitioners - at least those who do it honor - have motivations that transcend their profit interest. They know that books are no mere commodity, no mere items for consumption that leave their readers much as they find them. Books, like other vehicles of information and sources of entertainment can change, influence, elevate, demean, exalt, or depress those who expose themselves to them.	What books are and can be depends heavily on the judgement, integrity, taste, and acumen of those who select and produce them - their publishers."
237,"Book Selection of Censorship The key question was whether restrictions are being imposed on librarians, or whether they are imposing restrictions on themselves, that threaten the citizen's right to easy access to as adequate a collection of books and periodicals as his community, his country or his state can afford. Readers of this report may come to different conclusions about the ""right"" answer to this question, but whether they conclude that librarians are or are not being as forceful as they might be in developing and upholding freedom-to-read principles, it should not be forgotten that it is librarians themselves who have had the courage to provide the evidence."
238,"Book Selection and Censorship When is a librarian's decision not to include a book in his library collection an act of book selection, and when is it censorship? Is there, in fact, any discernible difference in the two terms: book selection and censorship? This topic was discussed so lucidly and ably, long ago, by Lester Asheim in what has become a classic essay in the literature of librarianship, ""Not Censorship, but Selection,"" that raising it again may appear to be an exercise in redundancy."
239,"Buyers and Borrowers This is the second book based on studies into social aspects of book reading.  The present book is largely a report on work which was carried out in 1967-68 but either not analysed or written up in time for the first book, or work actually carried out and analysed during the second year's research. The reader of this book will find it useful to have read the first book, but the present book is self-contained and does not require reference to the first one."
240,"Books for Junior College Libraries The primary purpose of this publication is to serve as a book selection guide for junior and community college libraries, whether long established, newly established, or in the planning and preinstruction stage. The need for a new and authoritative book list has long been expressed by administrators, faculty members, and librarians. It is hoped that the present list will meet this need, and that it will also be useful in four-year colleges, with special reference to their lower-division work; in secondary schools, especially where accelerated and honors programs or courses for advanced college placement are offered; and in public libraries seeking to satisfy the demands of high school and college students."
241,"A Brief guide to Sources of Scientific and Technical Information This guide is a recapitulation and refinement of the substantive content of a one-and-a-half day course which was given before three groups of Federal scientists and engineers during the Fall of 1967. Its purpose was to train and inform working scientists and engineers as to the most direct and efficient means of seeking and acquiring work-related information.  The impetus for the course was the recognition of the growing need for working scientists and engineers to share and participate in the existing and emerging information tools and mechanisms, and to avail themselves of the opportunities afforded by the newer approaches to information collection, organization, and dissemination. A further, related purpose of the course was to facilitate the fullest possible participation of the working scientist and engineer in the evolution of information services and mechanisms which are likely to have a greater and greater effect on his professional activities."
242,"Building Library Collections Each year thousands of books are published by the general, the technical, the governmental and the university presses in this and other countries. From this overwhelming mass of new publications every library must, within the limit of its funds, select that small part which will be most beneficial to the community it serves. This is properly an awesome responsibility to the young inexperienced librarian. To the competent veteran it is a task which though carried on week after week never can approach the ease of a well mastered routine. Each book examined requires the exercise of careful judgement, integrity, emotional control at times, and scrupulous honesty, guided always by a sense of purpose."
243,"CAN/DI system: User reaction to a computer and information retrieval system for Canadian scientists and technologists In April 1970, the CAN/SDI project, developed by the Canadian National Science Library, completed its first year of operation. At that time the project, designed as a national service to alert scientists and technologists to current information in specific fields of research, was serving over six hundred and fifty subscribers requiring a total of more than three thousand five hundred individual computer queries. Over one thousand personalized bibliographies are prepared each week from commercially available data bases purchased from Chemical Abstracts Service, the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) and the British Institution of Electrical Engineers. A detailed description of the service was given in a paper by J.E. Brown published in October 1969."
244,"Case Studies in Library Computer Systems Case Studies in Library Computer Systems does not follow the mode of the other volumes in this series because none of the persons, libraries or systems is disguised. Neither has information been withheld to force readers tp explore alternative choices, as in the usual case method. Rather, all systems are identified and described as accurately as possible. Descriptive case studies are problem-oriented, however, because they analyze a situation in which a librarian had to decide if a computer could be successfully utilized to solve the problem at hand. The descriptive case method rather than the problem case method was chosen because it seemed important to describe each system in detail and to evaluate its performance in the context of a real library environment and against the background of particular institutional service objectives."
245,"Case Studies in Systems Analysis in a University Library The marriage between the University of Michigan Library and Community Systems Foundation seemed like a sensible step at the time. Too often, Library administration found it necessary to choose between alternate courses of action without having adequate information. In addition, overburdened department heads rarely found time to alter their systems substantially to accommodate demands on the library and their departments, let alone time to make these changes in a systematic manner which considered the impact on other departments and carefully weighed alternative solutions. As a consequence of this situation, the library administrators were considering ways of providing staff assistance to themselves and the department heads, so that alternate courses of action could be designed and properly evaluated."
246,"Cataloging Rules ad Principles The present study was undertaken pursuant to an assignment by the Library of Congress. The author was directed to prepare, for the Board on Cataloging Policy and Research of the A.L.A. Division of Cataloging and Classification, a general analysis of the ALA cataloging rules for author and title entry, with special consideration of the rules for corporate authors, and a discussion of the objectives and principles which should underlie a revision of the rules. The first three parts of the report are directed, respectively, to the three aspects of this assignment. The fourth part of the report was added to deal with general questions raised by readers of a preliminary draft of this report."
247,"Cataloging U.S.A. The book deals almost entirely with theory and principles. Only now and then, if it seems necessary to a complete understanding of the implications of theory, is some detail of practice briefly described.  It follows that the work is not a substitute for rules of entry and description, subject headings rules and lists, classification schemes, or other similar reference books. Instead, it is only a commentary on such works, and it does not profess to comment on more than a few of what seem to be the most important aspects of each.  Comments are made only on cataloging in the United States. Many interesting practices have always been part of cataloging abroad. But to write of these practices also would have taken several books. This work looks at the foreign scene only when it seems necessary to understand fully some procedure in this country. If a reader in some other country finds anything in this book helpful, that will be, I hope, good for him and for his country's cataloging. I am not at all sure, however, that what we do and think in this country will be of value in other countries with other conditions. In no sense is this a book of American intellectual imperialism."
248,"CATV and its Implication The papers in this publication represent the edited oral presentations of the speakers at the conference.  The conference theme centered on the implications of cable television for libraries. The general purpose of the Institute was to foster greater understanding about the subject of cable television in the conference participants. More specifically, the planning committee for the conference enumerated the following objectives: 1. to provide an atmosphere of inquiry focused on the implications of cable   television for libraries; 2. to provide consultants and resource people who have knowledge and   experience related to the potential of cable television and its implications   for libraries; 3. to expand the participants' understandings and perceptions of the   technology of cable television and its related equipment as they affect the   libraries' communications responsibilities; 4. to suggest some techniques for utilizing cable television in originating   local programs, and to explore the possibilities for the varieties of   services cable television can offer the profession; 5. to aid librarians in all types of libraries to become aware of the unique   possibilities for the utilization of cable television in their specific   types of libraries, and also to suggest the importance of cable television   in a systematic approach to library and information networks; and, 6. to create a growing and continuing consciousness of the problems and   opportunities for the utilization of cable television in libraries."
249,Centralized Book Processing This report summarizes the results of the fourteen-month feasibility study -- the Colorado Academic Libraries Book Processing Center project (CALBPC). The report is organized under nine major sections: I. Background; II. Participating Libraries -- Operational Characteristics; III. Cost Analysis; IV. Business Office Procedures; V. The Book Processing Center; VI. Approval Plan Utilization; VII. Mathematical Model/Simulation; VIII. Attitude Survey; IX. Conclusions and Recommendations.
250,"Centralized Processing for Academic Libraries; final report of the Colorado Academic Libraries Book Processing Center; the first six months of operation This is the final report of the Colorado Academic Libraries Book Processing Center (CALBPC) project. The CALBPC project was begun in 1965 by nine academic libraries in Colorado in an effort to establish a centralized acquisition and processing center. The report of Phase I-II, completed in June 1968, dealt primarily with a general feasibility study, the design of the central system, costs of acquiring and processing in nine libraries and a number of related concerns such as accounting, the congruence of approval plans and user attitudes toward library services.   This report focuses on the experimental operations which were concluded officially on September 30, 1969. Whereas the Phase I-II study dealt with the theory and principles upon which a system might be based, we are presently concerned with the pragmatics of book processing, the obstacles encountered, and the solutions achieved.   Although this report deals primarily with cooperative acquisitions and processing, we believe it also contributes to a better understanding of cooperative programs. The experiment was designed to monitor operations throughout the acquisition/ cataloging cycle. Performance and cost measurements were made on most internal and external aspects of the system. Monitoring also extended into the participating libraries where a product acceptance study was conducted. A secondary objective of the project was to observe the relationships which formed between the participants and the central agency, such as the interface of systems and the human interaction of participants and the Center."
251,"Carl H. Milam and the American Library Association Carl Hastings Milam spent the most productive years of his life in the positions with which his name is most closely associated, those of secretary and, later, executive secretary of the American Library Association (ALA) from 1920 to 1948. When he became secretary, the association had already been in existence for forty- four years. What kind of association was it that claimed Milam's allegiance? What experience had he had with ALA before becoming its secretary? The answers to these questions lead to better understanding of Milam, the association, and their close relationship."
252,"Chemical and Engineering News Chemical Abstracts Service, along with the entire ACS publications program, is converting to a computer base. This change in our basic method of handling information will provide powerful new tools for chemists and chemical engineers to meet their information needs.  Our goal is a unified system that will produce both a full, printed record of chemical and chemical engineering knowledge and a variety of timely, special-subject alerting services, simultaneously providing a mechanized match and retrieval system that is sufficiently flexible to meet the varied needs of information users. The output will be supplied in whatever form best suits the user's needs - printed pages, microfilm, or computer-searchable tapes. Tapes and search programs will be usable on the customer's computer, or CAS will provide custom matches of its own computer files."
253,"World's Chemical Literature Continues to Expand Abstracts of scientific papers from journals and other serial publications, which now make up about 85% of the abstracts in CA, increased at an average annual rate of 8.4% between 1961 and 1970, compared with 8.2% in the previous decade. The number of such abstracts published annually now is doubling every 9 years. The number of patent abstracts increased at an average rate of 5% per year in the 1960's compared with 11.7% in the 1950's. However, the total number of patents covered by CA, either by actual abstracts or through the CA patent concordance, grew at an average rate of 10.9% from 1961 through 1970."
254,"Chemical Information Systems The purpose of a chemical information system must not be restricted to the storage and retrieval of facts. It is equally important that the system shall provide methods which enable a scientist to assemble and to correlate the facts. Chemical information systems are required primarily as a service to research chemists to enable them to keep up to date with current developments in their fields of interest, and the establishment of information services has relieved the chemist of many of his problems of literature searching and information storage and organization."
255,What do Chemists Read? Most British universities are spending at least 3000 pounds per year on chemical journals alone. And this does not include any administration or binding costs which may be as much again. Are the universities getting their money's worth out of these journals? This survey of one particular chemistry department suggests that they are not.
256,"The Civic Culture We are concerned in this book with a number of classic themes of political science: with what the Greeks called civic virtue and its consequences for the effectiveness and stability of the democratic polity; and with the kind of community life, social organization, and upbringing of children that fosters civic virtue. In using survey research to study these classic themes, we are also following the traditional practice of relying on the most precise methods available to us for the investigation of these problems. Perhaps Tocqueville and Bryce, were they living today, would have relied somewhat on the cross-section survey in their comparative studies of democratic attitudes."
257,"Classification for a General Index Language The role of classification schemes in libraries and information services has probably caused more argument than any other professional activity. This would be surprising if classification were no more than a fairly convenient way of arranging books on shelves. Some librarians think it is, and support their view by heaping scorn on the heads of those who, like the Classification Research Group, actually spend years of their time in theoretical discussions that seem to result in more and more abstruse and difficult complications to what ought to be a straightforward exercise. Yet today we can see clearly two relatively new spectacles on the library scene: on the one hand, some librarians are criticizing the Decimal Classification (especially as used in the British National Bibliography) for being too detailed and unwieldy; on the other hand, some librarians, and still more information officers, are busy revising the Universal Decimal Classification in order to make it more detailed. In the next field, as it were, computerized indexing and retrieval systems are pounding away at the ever-growing masses of literature, producing results that impress computer specialists but not information users, who are so deafened by the noise that they cannot hear what is new."
258,"Classification and Indexing in Science The first problem, that of learning of a publication's existence, is tackled by a multiplicity of abstracting and indexing journals and other bibliographies, and, at local levels, by library catalogues and unnecessary overlapping among these services, while ensuring adequately comprehensive coverage, are very great. But even if these were overcome, problems of the internal arrangement of these bibliographical aids would still remain. It is not enough for them collectively to record every scientific publication. The user must be able to find every such record, starting only with a subject on which he wants information."
259,"Classification and Indexing in Science The preface to the first edition of this book - which is reproduced following this - shows that in 1958 the classification ideas in it were felt to be controversial, needing to be championed. A few years before, the Classification Research Group had issued a memorandum proclaiming 'the need for a faceted classification as the basis of all methods of information retrieval.' As part-author of this memorandum, I must now judge the claim to have been too bold, even brash. But it has been vindicated to an extent, for both in theory and practice the value of facet analysis, in the organization of subject vocabularies for indexing and search, has been widely accepted - whether these vocabularies are classified or alphabetical, and whether used in pre- or post-coordinate fashion."
260,"Classification Practice in Britain. Report on a survey of classification opinion and practice in Great Britain, with particular reference to the Dewey Decimal Classification The objectives of the Sub-Committee in starting their enquiries were basically three-fold   1) To gather a reasonable collection of statistics relating to the general     practice of classification in this country.   2) To gather information on th actual use of the Dewey Decimal     Classification in this country.   3) To provide a basis for the recommendations which are provided     periodically for the Dewey Editorial Policy Committee from the     Library Association Library Research Committee's Sub-Committee on     Dewey Decimal Classification Revision. To this end a questionnaire was sent out to over 1100 libraries of all types throughout the country and after six months reminders sent to librarians to ensure they had received them and that none had been overlooked. The result of this was very pleasing; 716 were returned, the vast majority completed correctly. The actual figures of type and size of library are given in the body of the report but no type of library is completely omitted and a significant proportion of the larger libraries returned the questionnaire."
261,"Classification Scheme for Law Books An examination made over a period of years of the principles of classifying law books for use in libraries, and of their treatment in many general and specialized classification schemes convinced me that no scheme existed which was generally suitable for libraries in English- speaking countries outside the United States. Law collections in academic libraries in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth were in a particularly difficult position. They had the choice of adopting one of the good American schemes, which generally make inadequate provision for the needs of overseas Commonwealth libraries; or of adopting one of the English schemes, each of which is virtually tailored to a particular library, and several of which are even less well suited to overseas libraries; or of devising new schemes for themselves. There seemed to be an urgent need for a practical law classification scheme capable of being used in a variety of libraries, large and small, general and special, academic and professional, in these countries."
262,"Classification and Subject Index for a Library The plan of the following Classification and Index was developed early in 1873. It was the result of several months' study of library economy as found in some hundreds of books and pamphlets, and in over fifty personal visits to various American libraries. In this study, the author became convinced that the usefulness of these libraries might be greatly increased without additional expenditure. Three years practical use of the system here explained, leads him to believe that it will accomplish this result; for with its aid, the catalogues, shelf lists, indexes, and cross-references essential to this increased usefulness, can be made more economically than by any other method which he has been able to find. The system was devised for cataloguing and indexing purposes, but it was found on trial to be equally valuable for numbering and arranging books and pamphlets on the shelves."
263,"Classification Catalogue Code The Author, the Dictionary and the Classified catalogues represent three successive stages in the order of evolution of the internal form of the Library Catalogue. The classified form being the latest to evolve, the literature relating to it is comparatively scanty. It is strikingly so in the form of a systematic code of rules for cataloguing. While the number of codes for the Author Catalogue is fairly large and the number for the Dictionary Catalogue is also respectable, there appear to be few systematic and complete codes published in book-form for the Classified Catalogue. Hence this little venture, which is based on twenty-five years of experimentation and on the valuable reciprocal influence gained by its being taught to students of library science during the last twenty years.  While the Call Numbers occurring in the examples given are constructed by the Colon Classification, the rules of this Code are not necessarily dependent on that scheme for their applicability. They are all of general application, irrespective of the scheme of classification in use."
264,"Cleaning and Processing Bindings and Related Materials The destructive effects of air pollution in the modern city upon the health of its people, its trees, and its gardens, even its buildings and statues, are well known and are being increasingly fought against. But the public, generally, and even many librarians and book-collectors, who should know better, are apparently unaware of the rapid deterioration of the world's libraries under these conditions. In libraries, museums, and private homes preventive care is regularly given to pictures and sculpture, fine furniture, silver and brass; but the gradually deteriorating volumes on the shelves are given no more attention than an occasional dusting which abrades the books more than it protects them. I would judge that more than 90 percent of the books and documents that come to my bindery for repair or restoration are in a condition that could have been avoided by regular and appropriate preventive care. Unfortunately, even when the custodians of books become aware of the problem, they my be handicapped by the relative unavailability of expert advice on what procedures to follow in conserving their libraries. The present essay is intended to meet this need."
265,"Code of Cataloging Rules The following rules represent a system designed to produce an instrument essential to the operations and services of a library -- its catalog. To understand the rules and to apply them properly, it is necessary to comprehend the objectives which the catalog is to serve, the method by which these objectives are to be achieved, the basic aspects of the problem of cataloging, and the general principles which underlie the rules.   Objectives. The objectives which the catalog is to serve are two:   First, to facilitate the location of a particular publication, i.e. of a particular edition of a work, which is in the library.   Second, to relate and display together the editions which a library has of a given work and the works which it has of a given author."
266,"Quantitative Criteria for Adequacy of Academic Library Collection The authors challenge accepted doctrine which asserts that the adequacy of an academic library cannot be measured by the number of books which it contains.. Out of their feeling that the Standards for College Libraries and the Standards for Junior College Libraries are inadequate for estimating the size (in volumes) required for minimum adequacy by libraries of institutions of higher education of widely differing characteristics, they developed new formulas for this purpose.. These formulas attempt to identify the principal factors affecting academic needs for books and to ascribe suitable to each factor.. The authors then illustrate the application of the formulas to specific institutions, and conclude that while the results are useful, further research in needed.. They end by suggesting specific topics for such research.."
267,"System Analysis in University Libraries A comprehensive enginnering approach to the analysis and functional design of library systems is described in terms of fundamental space-time relationship which characterize university libraries.. Long-run trends in aquisitions and circulation are related to the relative obsolescence of stored materials, and the uncertainty of short-run demand pattern is related to the need for excess service capability.. The spatial dispertion of library resources among specialized information centers and central depositories is considered with respect to availability, retrieval, duplication, and efficient storage.."
268,"Subject Specialists in a University Library In an attempt to supply in other disciplines the bibliographical expertise traditionally furnished by university library systems to departments with departmental libraries, Indiana University has over the past three years established ten subject specialist positions in the social sciences, humanities, and area studies programs.. These librarians select materials, render reference service to faculty members and graduate students, give instruction in library use, and serve generally as the main channel of communication between the library and the academic departments to which they are allied.."
269,"Sampling and Short-Period Usage in the Purdue Library Several possible methods of sampling of social science monograph titles in the general library of Purdue University were considered, and a ""good"" method was used to obtain estimates of their usage in the library and at home during the period July 1 - August 4, 1964.. The term relative usage was defined and used to study the effect of: (1) language, (2) country of publication, (3) year of publication, and (4) year of accession of a monograph title.. An attempt was made to fit a regression model for titles in English by quantifying the last three independent variables with relative usage as the dependent variable.. Functions based on the above variables have been developed to identify monograph titles for storage..  A questionnaire was employed to stady the usage of library facilities and to gather opinions of library patrons.. Purpose of visiting the library, reason for checkout of library material, reason for preferring library or home for the use of library material, etc., were analyzed on the basis of the replies received.."
270,"Conflict in Libraries Intergroup conflict in libraries is explored, including conflict between departments, between professionals and bureaucracy, and between older and newer staff members.. Other special interests such as informal power-holders and the subprofessional are identified.. This analysis shows that existing organizational relationships in libraries let ""means"" become ""ends"".. Strong forces toward conformity hamper desirable growth and change.. A restructuring of libraries is proposed along the lines of professional rather than semiprofessional organizations.. Principal changes to be made are in existing processing-service relationships and administrative-professional relationships.."
271,"Determining and Allocating Book Funds for Current Domestic Buying A device is outlined to help formulate the annual book budget request.. Courses described in the college catalog are matched with the books listed in the American Book Publishing Record, BPR, Cumulative 1965.. Courses, treated as if monographes, are designed Dewey classification numbers and arranged in decimal sequence by groups.. Books in BPR falling into the groups are tallied; the DC groups are then rearranged by departments and the number and cost of books in each are totaled.. Results are sound estimates of each department's probable current domestic book needs for that year and may be applied to the subsequent year as an estimate of what will probably be needed.. They may be used as factors in an allocation formula.."
272,"Professionalism Reconsidered The question of librarianship as a profession is considered here in terms of the three key relationships of a professional-client, organizational and professional.. Professional practice in this field is thus cast against accepted norms and standards of professional behavior.. This critical assessment suggests that librarianship falls far short of the professional model.. Major shifts in the nature of the services performed by librarians and in their bureaucratic relationships will be required if librarianship is to advance.. The contributions of the professional associations and of library schools to the advancement of the process of professionalization is also analyzed.. Progress in the field is viewed to be inextricably tied to the success or failure which librarianship achieves in its quest for true professional attainment.."
273,"The Bottomless Pit, or the Academic Library as Viewed from the  Administration Building Library administrators could adjudge their likely fortunes in the academic tug-of war for funds if they understood more clearly the attitudes of institutional administrators toward libraries.. Some view the library as ""a bottomless pit""; all recognize that the library is unlikely to generate much political pressure for its own aggrandizement.. Many young institutional administrators are coming to apply more sophisticated measures to their funding formulas than have been utilized in the past..Librarians therefore would be well advised to become more proficient in modern management techniques and program budgeting concepts.."
274,"Question-Negotiation and Information Seeking in Libraries Seekers of information in libraries either go through a librarian intermediary or they help themselves.. When they go through librarians they must develop their questions through four levels of need, referred to here as the visceral, conscious, formalized, and compromised needs.. In this pre-search interview with an information-seeker the reference librarian attempts to help him arrive at an understanding od his ""compromised"" need by determining: (1) the subject of his interest; (2) his motivation; (3) his personal characteristics; (4) the relationship of the inquiry to file organization; and (5) anticipated answers.. The author contends that research is needed into the techniques of conducting this negotiation between the user and the reference librarian.."
275,"Measuring Classified Circulation According to Curriculum Circulation statistics can be precise reflections of library use according to the curriculum.. The statistics can help the librarian decide how to allocate the budget to departments.. Traditional counts, by department personnel or by broad Dewey or LC classes, are imprecise.. An analogy between curriculum and circulation can be constructed by classifying courses in the college catalog (by DC or LC), rearranging the numbers thus generated by department, and then counting circulation within those groups.. The analogy is thus a quantitative measure and a precise reflection of library use according to curriculum.."
276,"The Title Catalog: A Third Dimension The accessibility of the card catalog seems to be inversely proportional to the complexity of its arrangement.. A catalog divided into author-title and subject sequence simplifies the filing order of cards and facilitates the use of each catalog.. It is argued here that a three-way division into author, title, and subject catalogs will further augment these advantages.. In this paper a separation of the title catalog at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee library is described and evaluated.."
277,An Allocation Formula Derived from a Factor Analysis of Academic Department The authors derive a book fund distribution formula from a factor analysis of twenty-two variables which measure and quantify academic departments.. The analysis generates a 22 x 22 matrix of correlations.. A few of the significant correlations are discussed; e.g. those between books published and books circulated (high correlation) and circulation-by-subject and circulation-by-person (low correlation).. The factor analysis sorts out the complex relationships between the twenty-two variables and reduces them to three main factors - two of which seem to describe materials used and users.. The third may describe needs.. The three factors are the chief elements in the formula.. Each factor can be represented by any one or more of the variables in that factor..
278,"Random Sampling: a Tool for Library Research Questions about the accuracy of library records, the behavior or attitudes of patrons, or the conditions of the books in the collection can often be answered by a random sampling study.. Use of this time and money saving technique requires no special mathematical ability or statistical background.. The concept of accuracy is discussed and a table is provided to simplify the determination of an appropriate sample size.. A method of selecting a sample using random numbers is shown.. Three examples illustrate the application of the technique to library problems.."
279,Program Budgeting and Cost Benefit Analysis in Library Libraries in academic institutions have traditionally prepared annual budgets based either upon subjective judgments or upon oversimplified formulas.. Two budgeting techniques recently introduced into universities from the defense establishment are program budgeting and benefit analysis.. Properly applied they can be utilized to gain better decisions in problems facing academic library managers and improved allocation of library resources..
280,"User Circulation Satisfaction vs. Size of Holdings at Three Academic Libraries In an effort to determine certain facts concerning the relation of circulation satisfaction to collection size, the author sampled the ""last circulation date"" of stack books and of circulated books in three considerably different kinds of academic libraries.. The experience of these three libraries proved to be surprisingly similar.. The author speculates concerning potential uses to which such data might be profitably applied.."
281,"The Economic Goal of Library Automation A steadily increasing rate of productivity should be the economic goal of library automation.. Such productivity will be achieved only by development of a new library technology.. Thereby, rise in library costs, which are going up exponentially at a frightening rate, will be brought into line with cost rises in the economy as a whole.."
282,"Classifying Courses in the University Catalog The authors contrast the university catalog and the card catalog and conclude that the university catalog is the best guide to the university's current scholarly interest.. They urge that librarians study and classify courses therein, such as books, using the Library of Congress or Dewey Decimal schemes so that specific class number are grouped by academic department and become substantial spans.. The profile can be used as a selection tool, as a correlating tool between curriculum, circulation and publishing, and as a device to aid weeding and shelving.. General and specific quidelines for classifying, including a method for resolving apparent duplication of courses in different departments are presented.. Time and unit figures are tabulated.. Specific steps in classification and editing are described.."
283,"Academic Status for College and University Librarians - Problems and Prospects Academic librarians will archive and deserve full academic status only after they cause changes in the bureaucratic structure of libraries and in library education, and when they provide professional service on a scholarly level.."
284,"Automation Stops Here: A Case for Man-Made Book Collections The following paper was read at the Second International Seminar on Approval and Gathering Plans for Large and Medium-Size Academic Libraries, Kalamazoo, Michigan, October 31, 1969.. We print it here because its dissenting viewpoint is a timely as it is provocative.."
285,"Modernizing the University Library Structure Among the several kinds of change that appear to be in order in personnel management in university libraries, some have been described, others have not. There has perhaps been a super-abundance of attention devoted, for example, to the inadequate treatment of librarians within the university community as a whole, but little discussion has thus far appeared in print concerning their treatment within the library itself. This paper will attempt to define certain progressive changes that it is possible and probably desirable for the library to implement internally regardless of the university's willingness to consider improving the librarian's lot in the larger community."
286,"User's Reaction to Microfiche A Preliminary Study Recent emphasis placed on the use of microfiche by large government agencies has increased the pressure in libraries supporting government research to make greater use of microfiche.. Negative and apathetic user attitudes, expressed by researchers, indicate that expanded efforts to overcome resistance if the great potential of microfiche is to be realized.. Efforts in microphotography, expended on technical achievement in the past, should be directed toward understanding the user and his needs to discover why he avoids microforms and how to overcome his resistance to them.."
287,"Major Decision Points in Labrary Automation This article is based on a longer, more detailed paper prepared for the 1970 Midwinter Meeting of the Association of Research Libraries.. Readers interested in the complete test (with bibliography) are referred to the Minutes of the ARL meeting.. The author discusses automation in the context of the management, facilities, and system requirements for large research libraries.."
288,"An Approach to Performance Budgeting at the Florida Atlantic  University Library The article summarizes the problems encountered at the FAU library in the 1967 and the library's subsequent reorganization.. A detailed cost study is analyzed and the Clapp-Jordan and University of Washington formulae for budgeting are described, as well as a modified formula.. The resulting program performance budgeting system is now in use by the state university of Florida.."
289,"The Great Gas Bubble Prick't; or, Computers Revealed - by a Gentleman of Quality In which are Exposed the delicious Delusions of those will-o-the-wisps; the Echoes is computerization of Phrenology, Haruspication, and other discredited Ancient sciences; and the moral and Mental decline of our Profession.."
290,"Correlation the Subjects of Books Taken Out Of and Books Used Within an Open-Stack Library The traditional over-the-counter circulation count is not always considered a reliable indicator of total library use.. To test this assumption the author hypothesized that no correlation exists between the subjects of books taken out of the library and those used within the library.. Counts were made of books left on tables, chairs, desks, and other surfaces and correlated to books charged out.. Two studies were made.. In the first, books were counted within finely delineated LC and Dewey class spans relating to academic departments.. In the second, books were counted within the broad LC first and second letters and the Dewey tens.. In the first case, the overall correlation was .86; in the second, with less data, .84.. The author concludes that out-of-library circulation totals can be reliable indicators of in-library use.. For predicting in-library use (and thus total use) two methods are cited-simple ratio of out to in, and the regression equation.."
291,"A Generalized Methodology for Library Systems Analysis This article is directed toward the service in systems work. Its purpose is to generalize at a very elementary level a methodology or approach which can be used in conducting a systems study. Systems work is discussed here as a point of view; a logical, coherent, from the top down, preface to decision-making and resource allocation which utilizes a very powerful body of sophisticated techniques. The approach and techniques reviewed in this paper, however, will be those on the most elementary level. No attempt will be made to discuss the techniques of queueing, inventory management, linear programming, simulation, marginal analysis, game theory, statistical inference, or any of the other highly sophisticated techniques available to the operations research systems analysis (OR/SA) analyst. When the systems approach is clearly understood and properly used, it becomes a potent weapon in the arsenal of the administrator. Rather than a review of the tools themselves, a delineation of this systems methodology and point of view will be considered in this article. The methodology discussed here embraces a number of standard techniques used by the systems engineer, time and motion analyst, operations researcher, and occasionally, even the librarian."
292,"Cost Accounting and Analysis for University Libraries The approach to library planning studies in this paper is the use of accounting models to measure library costs and implement program budgets.. A cost-flow model for a university library is developed and tested with historical data from the General Library at the University of California, Berkeley.. Various comparisons of an exploratory nature are made of the unit costs and total costs for different parts of the Berkeley system.."
293,"Change in Academic Libraries Never noted for their willingness to accept innovative suggestions and implement change from outside sources, academic libraries have remained institutions in which changes in service policies and programs originated from internal sources only.. In order to shift to an orientation that seeks to develop new and expanding service programs, the establishment to research groups could do much to improve both the services offered by a library and its role in the academic community.. While certain constraints always limit modification or the initiation of services, a properly constituted research group could do much to generate a climate for change, provide feedback to the library, and successfully continue to develop new and more effective library and information services.."
294,"Key Factors of Circulation System Analysis and Design Librarians must frequently judge circulation systems on the basis of widely disparate descriptions that make comparisons difficult.. A way is needed to place various systems into a common perspective framework, so that their similarities and differences can be readily understood.. This paper explains basic (and largely familiar) concepts and components that are common to manual, machine-aided, and computer-based systems, and documents their significance as key factors in the analysis and design of academic library circulation systems.. Cost factors are not discussed.."
295,"An Approach to the Measurement of Use and Cost of a Large Academic Research Library System: A Report of a Study Done at Columbia University Libraries A description of the methodology used in collecting performance data in a large academic research library is given.. Twelve types of surveys used to measure and evaluate users, services, and materials were developed and conducted during the period 1968/69 at Columbia University libraries and later evaluated.. Sample results are included.. Costs of providing research services were found to be 64 percent versus 36 percent for instructional services.."
296,"Participative Management in Relation to Library Effectiveness This paper reviews a recent study on the influence of participative management on library performance.. Because most of the recent theoretical and empirical research being done in this area is ignored and an invalid measure of participation in decision making is used, the study provides no basis for the generalization that in increase in the library staff's participation in decision making will increase the library's effectiveness.."
297,"The Evaluation of Campus Library Document Delivery Service A campus delivery service is one way to increase accessibility of library materials.. This report provides an overview of such a service, evaluates its performance, notes the economic implications, and concludes that the service can solve some of the problems of decentralized collections.."
298,"The Changing Role of Directors of University Libraries The role of the university library director has changed markedly in the last decade.. The position of library director has become a difficult role to serve.. Directors has been subjected to pressures from different quarters.. Five sources are identified by the authors, including pressures from the president's office, library stuff, faculty, and students.. These difficulties coupled with a declining ability to meet user needs, the lack of cohesive library planning, and an institutional inability to accommodate change have all contributed to the declining status of the library director.. Recommendations as to ways to ameliorate the problem are offered.. Among the suggestions included are better planning, improved budgeting techniques, and the introduction of new organizational patterns.."
299,"An Approach to Developing Computer Catalogs A method of developing computer catalogs is proposed which does not require unit card conversion but rather the accumulation of data from operating programs.. It is proposed that the bibliographic and finding functions of the catalog be separated, with the latter being the first automated.. Such automation is seen as being advantageous on a cost basis.."
300,"Faculty Awareness and Attitudes Toward Academic Library Reference Services: A Measure of Communication A survey of the faculties at six colleges was undertaken to measure the degree to which the libraries of those institutions were communicating with the faculty concerning the availability of various references services.. The results demonstrated that the average faculty member was aware of barely half the services actually available.. Variables of academic rank, length of teaching, and amount of library and reference use were some of the factors shown to affect faculty awareness of library service.."
301,"Staff Participation in Management In Large University Libraries A CLR Fellowship in 1971-72 enabled the author to examine staff participation in the management of large academic libraries.. The report considers the climate of participation, preparation given the staff, areas of decision making, the role of the professional staff association, and the reaction of staff to such participation.."
302,"Applying ""Management by Objectives"" To the University Library Many methods of library management are no longer sufficient to meet the more sophisticated demands of today.. A promising management technique for librarians is ""managements by objectives"", which helps to establish library goals, measure performance objectively, and to identify factors affecting an operation's final results.."
303,"Reference-Bibliographers in the College Library One approach to making college library more relevant, dynamic, and intelligible is to employ specialists with broad subject competence, throughly familiar with the terminology, bibliographic tools, and major writings of several related disciplines.. These subject specialists or reference- bibliographers provide reference and institutional services, and serve as coordinators between academic departments and the library.. A significant increase in the quality of library service is attained with reference- bibliographers both building and interpreting the collection.. The reference- bibliographer concept is examined from several perspectives: historical antecedents; relationship to the academic setting; and the authors' experience with a staff of subject specialists at a predominantly undergraduate college library during 1969-1972.."
304,"The Management Review and Analysis Program: An Assisted Self-Study to Secure Constructive Change in the Management of Research Libraries The Management Review and Analysis Program (MRAP), designed, tested, and operated by the Association of Research Libraries' Office of University Library Management Studies (OMS), is an assisted self-study strategy intended for use by large academic and research libraries.. The program assists libraries in reviewing and analyzing their current management policies and practices, and provides guidelines for the application of contemporary principles of management for the improvement of library programs.."
305,"Allocating the Book Budget: A Model Inflation is currently affected library book budgets, particularly with respect to the acquisition of serials.. A model is proposed which would balance the purchase of serials against the purchase of monographs by individual funding units within the academic library.. Special consideration is given to inflation as a cost factor affected by both the form of publication and the subject matter.. Applying the model to a specific example demonstrates its use in providing control over collection development and allowing for equitable distribution of book funds among funding units.."
306,"From Economic to Political Analysis of Library Decision Making In general, the more critical the decision, the less useful a cost-benefit analysis is to library decision makers.. Political analysis is required, and Easton's conceptual framework is presented to suggest the utility of political analysis.. A list of normative issues is derived from raising descriptive questions about the politics of university libraries.."
307,"Providing Access to Externally Available Bibliographic Data Bases  in an Academic Library The ready availability of externally processed bibliographic data based has made it possible for an academic library to provide computerized searches on a large number of data bases with a very small initial investment and utilizing its own personnel.. The experience of the University of Pennsylvania Libraries has confirmed that such an approach is indeed feasible. This article discusses the approach, questions and problems encountered, and the factors considered in their resolution.. Also discussed are the role of the data services librarian, the cost incurred, and some observations as to the philosophy of the approach, with particular attention to the integration of the service into the reference department.."
308,"The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology The criticism and transformation of society can be divorced only at our peril from the criticism and transformation of theories about society. Yet the gap between theory and practice, so common in the history of American radical movements, is in some quarters growing wider. Some of the most militant of American radicals, in the New Left or in the movement for Black liberation, have at least temporarily avoided any serious concern with social theory.  This neglect of theory doubtless has various origins. In some part it is due to the fact that these social movements are still new and their political activism consumes their necessarily limited energies and resources; the new radicalisms will, in short, need time to produce their new theories. Although the neglect of theory is scarcely peculiar to Americans, it is in part also due to the fact that American radicals are often more American than they know and may prefer the tangible outcomes of pragmatic politics to the intangible outputs of theory. Again, part of their neglect of theoretical problems is probably due to the close links that some young radicals have with the ""hippie"" contingent of their generation, whose more expressive and aesthetic styles of rejecting American culture dispose them to avoid what they take to be the sterile ""hassles"" of intellectual confrontation. There is also a vocal minority who, as has been said, feel personally excluded when they hear an appeal to reason."
309,"The SMART Automatic Document Retrieval System - An Illustration A fully automatic document retrieval system operating on the IBM 7094 is described.. The system is characterized by the fact that several hundred different methods are available to analyze documents and search requests.. This feature is used in the retrieval process by leaving the exact sequence of operations initially unspecified, and adapting the search strategy to the needs of individual users..  The system is used not only to simulate an actual operating environment, but also to test the effectiveness of the various available processing methods.. Results obtained so far seem to indicate that some combination of analysis procedures can in general be relied upon to retrieve the wanted information.. A typical search request is used as an example in the present report to illustrate systems operations and evaluation procedures.."
310,"A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Banks Future users of large data banks must be protected from having to know how the data is organized in the machine (the internal representation). A prompting service which supplies such information is not a satisfactory solution.. Activities of users at terminals and most application programs should remain unaffected when the internal representation of data is changed and even when some aspects of the external representation are changed.. Changes in data representation will often be nedded as a result of changes in query, update, and report traffic and natural growth in the types of stored information..  Existing noninferential, formated data systems provide users with tree- structured files or slightly more general network models of the data.. In Section 1, inadequacies of these models are discussed.. A model based on n-ary relations, a normal form for data base relations, and the concept of a universal data sublanguage are introduced.. IN Section 2, certain operations (other than logical inference) are discussed and applied to the problems of redundancy and consistency in the user's model.."
311,"Communication among Scientists and Engineers Since 1966, the Johns Hopkins University Center for Research in Scientific Communication has been conducting studies of the information flow process - the production, dissemination, and assimilation of information - associated with nine scientific and engineering disciplines. This process in most disciplines appears, from the dissemination point of view, to consume about five years - from the time a scientist begins his research until reports of his findings are cited in a review. To date we have conducted over sixty studies of this process and, since one of the main goals of our program is to make genuine comparisons of the scientific communication associated with the disciplines being studied, we have standardized the procedures, instruments, and analyses in those of the major studies which were conducted for all disciplines.  We will present findings from the major studies conducted to date in order (1) to indicate the types of data we have collected on approximately 30,000 scientists and engineers during the past three years; (2) to indicate some of the goals of our program; and (3) to suggest a preliminary picture of the communication structure of science, as our program has led us to perceive it."
312,"Communication of Innovations: A Cross-Cultural Approach In the present edition we have, to a far greater extent, integrated diffusion research with the scientific study of human communication. Diffusion researchers have long been aware that they were investigating a special type of communication behavior. In this book we stress communication concepts and frameworks in our analysis of the diffusion process. We feel this provides an advantage of conceptual clarity as well as ease of wide expression. Our adoption of the communication viewpoint is reflected in the addition of several chapters, the complete reorganization of all chapters, and the frequent inclusion of new concepts."
313,"Communication among Scientists and Engineers In the course of collecting data on nine scientific and technological disciplines, it has become obvious to us that in their communication activities, some disciplines behave quite differently from others.. Recently, we have reanalyzed our data for the physical, the engineering, and the social sciences.. We do not have time to discuss differences among all three groups, so we have decided to compare only the physical and social sciences.. We have included data pertaining to the engineering sciences on the graphs, however, so you can get some idea of how they differ from the other two groups..  Before discussing these differences, we should like to emphasize that there are similarities, that there are of major importance, and that they, in fact, make genuine comparisons among the groups feasible..  We will discuss differences between the physical and the social sciences in terms of three major communication characteristics associated with science.."
314,"Citation Measures of Hard Science, Soft Science, Technology and Nonscience Perhaps the fundamental problem of those that work in the scientific information industry is that it is not just that special part of an information industry that happens to deal with material having a scientific content.  Technical librarianship involves much more than librarianship applied to books with an esoteric vocabulary and much mathematics.  My reason for choosing this problem as a contribution for such a strategic conference is that I know well as an historian of science that the greatest and most useful advances in our technologies have not come from the applied research of trained people trying to make themselves useful to society, but rather from basic research aimed at furthering understanding and curiousity, and powered by the latest instrumentation that the useful people have devised. I suspect that all the new indexing tools and computer handlings will be more useful to basic research in understanding scientists than they will to solving practical problems for which they are designed. It seems clear, however, that it is only such new understanding that can bring success, whatever solutions ultimately emerge."
315,"Automatic Abstracting and Indexing - Survey and Recommendations In preparation for the widespread use of automatic scanner which will read documents and transmit their contents in automatic analysis: the relative- frequency approach to measuring the significance of words, word groups, and sentences.. The relative-frequency approach is discussed in detail, as is its application to problems of automatic indexing and automatic abstracting.. Included in the report is a summary of automatic analysis studies published as of the date of writing.. Conclusions are drawn that point toward more sophisticated mathematical and linguistic techniques for the solution of problems of automatic analysis.."
316,Scatter Storage Techniques Scatter storage techniques as a method for implementing the symbol tables of assemblers and compilers are reviewed and a number of ways of using them more effectively are presented.. Many of most useful variants of the techniques are documented..
317,"Natural Language Question - Answering System: 1969 Recent experiments in programming natural language question-answering system are reviewed to summarize the methods that have been developed for syntactic, semantic, and logical analysis of English strings.. It is concluded that at least minimally effective techniques have been devised for answering questions from natural language subsets in small scale experimental systems and that a useful paradigm has evolved to guide research efforts in the field.. Current approaches to semantic analysis and logical inference are seen to be effective beginnings but of questionable generality with respect either to subtle aspects of meaning or to applications over large subset of English.. Generalizing from current small-scale experiments to language processing systems based on dictionaries with thousands of entries - with correspondingly large grammars and semantic systems - may entail a new order of complexity and require the invention and development of entirely different approaches to semantic analysis and question answering.."
318,"A Formal System for Information Retrieval from Files A generalized file structure is provided by which the concepts of keyword, index, record, file, directory decoding, and record retrieval are defined and from which some of the frequently used file structures such is inverted files, index-sequential files, and multilists files are derived..  Two algorithms which retrieve records from the generalized file structure are presented.."
319,"Inefficiency of the Use of Boolean Functions for Information Retrieval Systems In this note we attempt to point out why boolean functions are, in general, not applicable in information retrieval systems.  First, we wish to stress that a system, which supposedly is to serve a certain purpose, has to try to optimize some overall performance rather than certain detailed parts of it. This situation is, of course, well known.  Saying that a system should cater to an optimal performance implies that the reward varies with different circumstances. That is, there may always be some customers who will not agree that the system's output is satisfactory. However, these should be relatively few. In the case of an information retrieval system, let us consider one whose function is to furnish a reference list as a reaction to a question.  So, if we have a set of documents S and a set of questions Q, the system has to assign to each question q, an answer A(q) which is a subset of S. Naturally, this answer cannot be chosen arbitrarily; it should reflect a relation between the question and the resulting reference list. Usually one says that the documents in the list are relevant to the question. More precisely stated, we assume that the enquirer expects a certain reference list, namely the one he would have procured had he himself probed the documents in the set."
320,"The Teachable Language Comprehender: A Simulation Program and Theory of Language The Teachable Language Comprehender (TLC) is a program designed to be capable of being taught to ""comprehend"" English text. When text which the program has not seen before is input to it, it comprehends that text by correctly relating each (explicit or implicit) assertion of the new text to a large memory. This memory is a ""semantic network"" representing factual assertions about the world.  The program also creates copies of the parts of its memory which have been found to relate to the new text, adapting and combining these copies to represent the meaning of the new text. By this means, the meaning of all text the program successfully comprehends is encoded into the same format as that of the memory. In this form it can be added into the memory.  Both factual assertions for the memory and the capabilities for correctly relating text to the memory's prior content are to be taught to the program as they are needed. TLC presently contains a relatively small number of examples of such assertions and capabilities, but within the system, notations for expressing either of these are provided. Thus the program now corresponds to a general process for comprehending language, and it provides a methodology for adding the additional information this process requires to actually comprehend text of any particular kind.  The memory structure and comprehension process of TLC allow new factual assertions and capabilities for relating text to such stored assertions and capabilities for relating text to such stored assertions to generalize automatically. That is, once such an assertion or capability is put into the system, it becomes available to help comprehend a great many other sentences in the future."
321,"An Information-Theoretic Approach to Text Searching in Direct Access Systems Using direct access computer files of bibliographic information, an attempt is made to overcome one of the problems often associated with information retrieval, namely, the maintenance and use of large dictionaries, the greater part of which is used only infrequently. A novel method is presented, which maps they hyperbolic frequency distribution of text characteristics onto a rectangular distribution. This is more suited to implementation on storage devices.  This method treats text as a string of characters rather than words bounded by spaces, and chooses subsets of strings such that their frequencies of occurrence are more even than those of word types. The members of this subset are then used as index keys for retrieval. The rectangular distribution of key frequencies results in a much simplified file organization and promises considerable cost advantages. .K text searching, information theory, filed organization, direct access, information retrieval, character string, bit vector .C 3.42 3.70 3.73 3.74 5.6"
322,"The Community College Library This study deals with the learning resources programs of the public two-year colleges. In former years, these institutions were commonly called junior colleges, and the college departments or divisions that assembled, organized, and interpreted the learning resources (mainly books) were commonly called libraries. In keeping with traditional terminology I could have chosen ""The Junior College Library"" as the title for the study; however, I decided to modify the title to make it correspond more closely to prevailing current terminology."
323,"Comparative and International Librarianship; essays on themes and problems In this decade, professionals in the field of librarianship and the information sciences will continue to be faced with most of the problems that have haunted libraries for generations, problems that can be best summed up as the attempt to reduce the anonymity of information. There will also be many new problems. Some of these are already becoming apparent, while others are still unknown. But librarians need not despair; the past record is clear. Through the use of sophisticated electronic machines, we have begun to master the bibliographical control and retrieval of information, we have improved the communication between librarians and the consumers of information on a national and international basis, and we have refined the many problems concerned with cataloging and classifying information. In addition, library education has been on the front line in trying to educate people to understand the complexities of organizing and disseminating information of all types."
324,"Computational Analysis of Present-Day American English Readers can expect to find many parts of this volume tantalizing. The definiteness of the answers to certain questions irresistibly provokes more questions. The happy feature is that the book provides information required to limit the effect to that of tantalizing rather than frustrating. For there is given here a wholly adequate description of the nature of the Corpus of Present-Day Edited American English on which this study is based, the details of its constituents, and the modes of its transfer to tape. A replica of that tape is available at a small cost in money, which is minuscule compared to the cost in time needed to produce a like corpus. Accordingly, any reader who seriously wants answers to further questions can set about getting those answers."
325,"Computer-Based Library and Information Systems This book describes some of the various ways in which a computer could be used as part of a library system. In doing so, it aims to bridge the gap between librarian and computer specialist, by introducing computers to those involved in library work, especially students of librarianship, and at the same time helping to make those interested in the computer applications field aware of the potential and problems of the library environment."
326,"Computer Filing of Index Bibliographic and Catalog Entries The need to establish a filing code for computer arrangement has become increasingly apparent as more and more book catalogs and indexes have been prepared mechanically. Many of the difficulties in manual filing, as shown in the A.L.A. Rules for Filing Catalog Cards, become even more intricate to cope with when computers are used. Of course, if cost is not an object, the theoretical potentialities for computer programming are practically limitless. However, modifications in rules and procedures can make the alphabetic arranging or merging of index, catalog, or bibliographic entries by computer more readily possible, and these modifications are made in this proposed code for computer filing of complex alphabetic entries."
327,"Computer Handling of Chemical Structure Information Far-reaching changes in the patterns of communication in science are at present in motion, which seem likely to have fundamental effects on scientists's use of and access to existing knowledge. These changes derive from the increasing involvement of computer techniques in the publication, dissemination and retrieval of scientific and technical information. Many of the implications of the changes are not yet clear. Information-handling is rapidly changing from a labour-intensive industry to a capital-intensive one, as soaring man-power requirements reflect the increasing flow of information and increasing demands for timeliness, accuracy, and improved access. But the changes to be effected also have major social implications; the reasons for publication and use of information are complex, reflecting the factors of a sociological nature which are still imperfectly understood. The rate at which innovations in information- handling win acceptance from scientists is determined partly by their appreciation of the greater flexibility which the novel methods offer, but also by the sensitivity, on the part of the designers and operators of information systems, to the needs and habits of users, and to their perception of the usefulness of the newer methods."
328,"Current approaches to classification and clump-finding at the Cambridge Language Research Unit Computer programs for automatic classification are a desideratum in many fields.. Work on suitable procedures for handling large bodies of object/ property descriptions has been in progress at the Cambridge Language Research Unit for some years: this paper describes the current series of general-purpose programs which have been developed there, in which classes or ""clamps"" of objects are obtained, using a similarity matrix, by a simple iterative scan of the universe of objects, distributing them in such a way that an appropriate cohesion function is minimized.. This actual clump-finding process is embedded in a overall package in which the information given by a classification is manipulated in a variety of ways.. The current applications of the programs, especially for information retrieval, are described.."
329,"The identification of variable-length, equifrequent character strings in a natural language data base The words of natural language texts exhibit a Poisson (or Zipfian) rank- frequency relationship, i.e., a small number of common words accounts for a large proportion of word occurrences, while a large number of the words occur as singletons or only infrequently.. Inverted-file retrieval systems using free text data bases commonly identify words as the keys or index terms about which the file is inverted, and through which access is provided.. They therefore involve large and growing dictionaries and many entail inefficient utilization of storage because of the distribution characteristics..  An alternative approach may be based on the analysis of text in terms of sets of variable-length character strings, the frequency distributions of which are much less disparate than those of words.. This could lead to substantial reductions in dictionary size, and increased efficiency both in dictionary look-up times and storage utilization."
330,"Computer Readable Bibliographic Data Bases -- A Directory and Data Sourcebook This document, Computer Readable Bibliographic Data Bases -- A Directory and Data Sourcebook not only updates the 1973 publication, which included information on 81 data bases, but expands the coverage to 300 data bases and includes considerably more information about the data bases.  Methodology used to obtain data involved: (1) consulting published and unpublished sources; (2) design of a 13 page questionnaire; (3) mail survey; and (4) telephone follow up and verification. The sources consulted were (1) the Survey of Commercially Available Computer-Readable Bibliographic Data Bases; (2) M.E. Williams' personal data base files which include information from the open literature, news releases, and personal contacts; (3) NEWSIDIC, April 1975 issue number 16, the quarterly newsletter produced by EUSIDIC which included a survey of computer readable bibliographic files; (4) the ""World Inventory of Abstracting and Indexing Services--Data Elements Definition List;"" and (5) the ASIDIC Survey of Information Center Services."
331,"Computerized Library Catalogs: Their Growth, Cost and Utility This book is a slightly modified form of a report on computerized library catalogs prepared for the Office of Education of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (Contract OEC-1-7- 071182-5013). It consists of seven chapters. The first poses the problems that have been studied, introduces background material to facilitate an understanding of their significance, and presents our conclusions and general recommendations. The remaining chapters belong to one of two parts, depending on whether their principle concern is the utility or the cost of computeerized library catalogs. Because the problem of utility is the more speculative of the two, it has been placed in the second part."
332,"On-line Text Editing: A Survey This paper is a survey of current methods of the on-line creation and editing of computer programs and of ordinary manuscript text.. The characteristics of on-line editing systems are examined and examples of various implementations are described in three categories: program editors, text editors, and terminals with local editing facilities.."
333,"The Concept of Main Entry as Represented in the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules The work published here is rather like those conclusive statements of renaissance science that located the soul not in the human frame but in the human spirit. The author of this work may face the wrath of the medievalists among our fellow professional catalogers. At the least, the publication of this book should encourage a complete reappraisal of our cataloging methods, because the difference between title unit entry and author-equivalent unit entry, a confabulation of main and unit entry arising from tradition rather than practicality, can be clearly seen not only in the job classifications and job descriptions of cataloging departments, but also in our philosophy of librarianship."
334,"Concepts and Subject Headings Librarians are known for their organizational work with recorded knowledge. Information storage and retrieval are two well-known, basic functions associated with this work. A search of the literature of library science reveals that these functions have not been examined to any significant degree from the users' point of view. This is true in regard to library catalogs and library subject headings."
335,"Conceptual Basis of the Classification of Knowledge As far as philosophers are concerned, the Conference seems to be justified precisely because of the present state of the Classification of Knowledge. For two thousand years, the Classification of Knowledge has been a major philosophical problem. Lately, it has evolved from a philosophical preoccupation into a specialized technique, a species of the general techniques of classification, far removed from philosophical preoccupations and equally ignored by philosophers. At the present time there exist powerful technical models of classification and highly developed classifications of various branches of knowledge. What is lacking is a satisfactory general classification of knowledge and an adequate clarification of the philosophical problems underlying such classification. The need for clarification is important from the theoretical as well as practical point of view because the general systems of classification of knowledge depend on theories of knowledge. It is therefore highly desirable that philosophers and specialists in classification get together and discuss problems of common interest."
336,"Conceptual Design of an Automated National Library System This work describes a conceptual design of an automated national library system. The design is ""conceptual"" in that it is intended to show the feasibility of a system concept rather than provide a detailed engineering design. The design concerns an automated national library system but does not attempt to automate all parts of the system. It is primarily concerned with the functions of bibliographic searching, acquisition, circulation, and cataloging. If these functions can be economically automated, the major problems associated with our information explosion will be solved."
337,"Conservation Library This volume provides an introduction to the various facets of conservation as well as bibliographical data of permanent value. In addition to being a critical description of the literature on the historic and technical aspects of the care, repair and restoration of books, prints, maps, and manuscripts and other important records, it is a manual of practical guidance for librarians, archivists, curators, conservators, restorationists and bookbinders."
338,"Contemporary Problems In Technical Library and Information Center Management: A State of the Art The Review Papers included in this volume represent one of the valuable products of the American Society for Information Science. The original draft papers were sponsored by the TISA (Technical Information Support Activities) Project of the Army Corps of Engineers, as indicated on the reverse title page. The basic objective of this TISA project was to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of Department of Defense (DoD) technical libraries, information centers and information analysis centers. The establishment of priorities for TISA-sponsored research was undertaken by the Graduate Library School of the University of Indiana."
339,"Continuing Library and Information Science Education This report and its recommendations are in response to the Commission's request for ""a nationwide program of continuing education for personnel in the library and information science field."" While it is offered as only the start of an on-going process of developing a nationwide program, its recommendations are the result of an intensive nine-month project, involving hundreds of persons in the library and information science fields.  Many of these persons participated in mini-charettes, in a written survey, or in personal interviews which addressed major issues such as: certification; organizational and individual incentives for continuing education; educational methods; and continuing education needs. The contribution of these library personnel cannot be overstated. Their collective wisdom and perspective have led the Project team to many of its major recommendations. However, as would be expected when such a large number of people are involved, there were differences of opinion, even as there are many differences of opinion reflected in the literature of continuing education emanating from the various professions. In the present study, most of these differences related to the input into and control over the policies of the national structure. Three alternative models which have been considered are outlined in Appendix D; alternatives to several specific features of the recommended model are presented at the end of Chapter 4. Throughout the text, when issues are presented on which there is uncertainty because of the intensity of opinions expressed, these areas are identified."
340,"Cooperation Between Types of Libraries This bibliography uses the traditional typology of libraries as its starting point - public, school, academic-research, and special libraries. This classification is most commonly used and provides a sufficiently clear distinction for the purposes of this work.  Public libraries are those which are free to all residents of the library's district and supported primarily from general public funds or taxes levied for library purposes. Local public libraries, systems of public libraries, and state library agencies are included in this category.  School libraries are those maintained by the governing boards of schools whether they be public, private, or parochial. School libraries at the elementary, junior high school, and senior high school level are included.  Academic-research libraries include the libraries of institutions of higher education, both public and private, as well as libraries which, while they might be defined as either public or special, are widely known for their research resources. Junior college libraries, college libraries, university libraries, and technical school libraries are included as academic libraries. The Library of Congress, the Newberry Library, and Linda Hall Library are examples of nonacademic research libraries.  Special libraries are those directed toward making information available to people within a particular organization with fairly well-defined information needs. Business and industrial libraries and the libraries of nonprofit organizations are common examples.  While distinctions between research and special libraries are not always easily made, it is felt that in the case of this bibliography, no serious problems are created."
341,"Copying Methods Manual The current need for a manual of copying methods dealing with the processes, methods, techniques, and types of equipment which can be used for reproducing documents of a great many different kinds arises from two factors:  (1) The great importance of document reproduction processes in the acquisition, preservation, dissemination, and communication of information vital to the conduct of research work in all fields of human endeavor and on an international scale.  (2) The complexity of the field of document reproduction today which has resulted from the enormous technical advances made in the past fifteen years.  The need for the coining of the new class word - reprography (an unfortunate graft of a Latin fragment on a Greek root) - is in itself indicative of the great changes that have come about. Processes and methods which formerly were discrete and distinctive have now become intricately interrelated. New processes and combinations of processes with different and astonishing capabilities continue to appear. This revolution in the document copying field has been powerfully augmented by intensive competition on the part of manufacturers for a share of the vast and lucrative office-records copying field. The results, however, have led to highly important applications in the reproduction of research materials as well."
342,"Corporate Headings: Their use in library cataloguing and national bibliographics: A comparative and critical study This study is an attempt to submit to a critical analysis the main problems related to corporate headings, the difficulties raised by them and the solutions which now prevail in various countries.  In order to make the differences existing between the various solutions and the unsatisfactory character revealed by many of them more evident, a great number of examples in a variety of languages, extracted from cataloguing codes, national bibliographies, printed lists of corporate headings have been added. These examples are also intended to draw attention to differences existing with regard to various technical details, such as punctuation, capitalization, transliteration, etc.  In addition, many of these examples will clearly prove that certain solutions which may be considered to be suitable for one country or one language would not satisfy the requirements of another country or another language.  In the study, examination and analysis of codes has been complemented by references to professional literature on the subject available to the author, and by an analysis of opinions expressed there. Special attention has been paid to comparisons of cataloguing practices and citation usages, and to investigations of the users' approach to corporate headings. It is well understood and appreciated that, for the catalogue user, the identification of and search for corporate headings present more problems than any other type of heading. Unfortunately, however, professional literature has as yet paid insufficient attention to these problems."
343,"A Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge On almost all the occasions when we turn explicitly to the same problems, Sir Karl's view of science and my own are very nearly identical. We are both concerned with the dynamic process by which scientific knowledge is acquired rather than with the logical structure of the products of scientific research. Given that concern, both of us emphasize, as legitimate  data the facts and also the spirit of actual scientific life, and both of us turn often to history to find them. From this pool of shared data, we draw many of the same conclusions. Both of us reject the view that science progresses by accretion; both emphasize instead the revolutionary process by which an older theory is rejected and replaced by an incompatible new one; and both deeply underscore the role played in this process by the older theory's occasional failure to meet challenges posed by logic, experiment, or observation. Finally, Sir Karl and I are united in opposition to a number of classical positivism's most characteristic theses. We both emphasize, for example, the intimate and inevitable entanglement of scientific observation with scientific theory; we are correspondingly sceptical of efforts to produce any neutral observation language; and we both insist that scientists may properly aim to invent theories that explain observed phenomena and that do so in terms of real objects, whatever the latter phrase may mean."
344,Current Problems in Reference Service Current Problems in Reference Service is a collection of thirty-five new problem case studies intended for instructional use in both formal and informal teaching-learning situations in the field of librarianship.
345,"Data Bases; Computers, and the Social Sciences This book was written with several diverse audiences in mind: (1) social and behavioral scientists and their students, (2) librarians and library-science students who are favorable about employing computers and computer-usable information in their work and classes, and (3) archivists and their employees who desire to have more than a current overview of the problems and their tentative solutions. Because of the diversity of material, it is not expected that all readers will use the book in the same way. Rather, it is assumed that readers will supplement a subset of the book with bibliographical materials from the reference sections."
346,"Data Study Information, whose handling is the topic of this book, is generated by change, and whatever is our unit of change is our unit of information. In a situation in which only three possible moves can be made, only three fundamental units of information can be found, no matter how complex a structure we may build upon them. Our topic is therefore a special sort of change, the change brought about in acquiring or keeping or transmitting elements of knowledge."
347,"CAS computer-Based Information Services This paper describes the key points that characterize CAS' approach to large scale scientific-technical information systems that must handle over 100,000 documents per year. The first of these points is the ""single analysis/multiple use"" concept. Intellectual ability is a rare commodity and essential to an information service. Therefore, it makes sense to conserve that commodity and not use manpower to perform repetitive jobs or to waste effort analyzing information."
348,"A Regional Network - Ohio college Library Center The Ohio College Library Center is developing a computerized, user-oriented, library system that will improve efficiency of library use and operations; that will increase availability of library resources within a region; and that will facilitate evolution of new and easier accesses to information in libraries. The center does not conceive of its task as being merely the mechanization of library procedures of the past.  For the immediate future, the principal academic objective of the center is to increase the availability of library resources for use in educational and research programs in colleges and universities throughout Ohio. A more distant objective is to enable libraries to participate actively in the programs of instruction and research in their institutions. The passive service functions that libraries have developed during the past century are proving inadequate to meet the present demands made of libraries, and will be increasingly inadequate in the future.  The per-student costs of libraries are rising somewhat more than twice as rapidly as unit-cost rises in the general economy. Therefore, the principal economic goal of the Ohio College Library Center is to decelerate the rate of rise of per-student costs, so that the rate of increase will approximate that of the economy as a whole."
349,"Decision Analysis: Introductory Lectures on Choices Under Uncertainty These lectures do not present a descriptive theory of actual behavior. Neither do they present a positive theory of behavior for a superintelligent, fictitious being; nowhere in our analysis shall we refer to the behavior of an ""idealized, rational, and economic man,"" a man who always acts in a perfectly consistent manner as if somehow there were embedded in his nature a coherent set of evaluation patterns that cover any and all eventualities. Rather, the approach we take prescribes how an individual who is faced with a problem of choice under uncertainty should go about choosing a course of action that is consistent with his personal basic judgements and preferences. He must consciously police the consistency of his subjective inputs and calculate their implications for action. Such an approach is designed to help us reason and act a bit more systematically - when we choose to do so!"
350,"The Design of Inquiring Systems ""Design"" is used throughout in its most generic sense, to include planning, operations research, engineering design, architectural design, programming, budgeting, and all the other activities in which we consciously attempt to change ourselves and our environment to improve the quality of our lives. So the book could be read as a philosophy of organization theory, or of architectural or engineering design, or of operations research, or of planning.  The word ""inquiry"" suggests that the audience includes persons interested in the philosophy of science; this is true, so long as the interest is a very broad one, concerned with the meaning of science with respect to other social institutions, health, education, morality, and so on. Inquiry is by no means restricted to the disciplines of science. I could have called the book The Design of Systems, but this would not adequately reflect my style, which is to proceed from the more specific problem of inquiry to the ""whole system."""
351,"Deterioration and Preservation of Library Materials The deterioration of library materials, constant since libraries began, has accelerated to alarming proportions in 1969. Researchers have predicted that all paper-based records of this century, as well as those of earlier years,face imminent ruin. Without new and effective efforts for their preservation, most will not be usable in their present form in the next century. The danger of destruction threatens not only research library collections but also the world of knowledge and scholarship that they support. For not only paper is involved. Similar dangers of destruction confront other cellulosic products, such as film, which may substitute for paper as the material base of records. And not only research libraries are involved. The surprisingly rapid deterioration of printed materials, even those that have been produced with some eye to permanence, creates problems and expenses for other libraries as well."
352,"Developing Multi-Media Libraries This book presents the concept of the modern library as a comprehensive resource center. The philosophy and objectives of the center are clarified, and desirable practices in the selection and acquisition of nonbook or audiovisual materials - interchangeably defined as those materials that communicate primarily through aural and visual stimuli - are recommended, along with information pertinent to facilitating these tasks. Their organization in general in discussed, with emphasis on the necessity for basic decisions and policies. Cataloging and physical processing are treated in particular, demonstrating that accepted library practices can be flexible enough to allow adaptation for both the individual library and its specific clientele. Realistic methods of handling the many different kinds of nonbook materials are demonstrated by treating each type separately. Many easy-to- follow cataloging examples are presented; and, consistent with established library routine, practical information is provided on selection, acquisition, physical processing, storage, and equipment. Work-flow charts are included to present a graphic demonstration of efficient procedures."
353,"The Development of Reference Services through Academic Traditions, Public Library Practice and Special Librarianship Modern American library history has received only sporadic attention as a subject for investigation. Though we have now accumulated an adequate supply of source materials to draw upon in the form of annual reports, service studies, biographical accounts, and chronicles of individual libraries, no one has yet fashioned out of these materials a critical history of American librarianship. To paraphrase Leo LaMontagne, we have salvaged remnants from the past, but we have yet to convert them into history.  The lack has cost the profession dearly. Even a casual survey of the literature of librarianship reveals the shocking degree of duplication and naivete that stem from an insufficient awareness of previous efforts.  There is clearly room and need for a series of evaluative studies of the development of American library services which could eventually be put together to form the desired definitive history of American librarianship. The present dissertation is intended as a contribution toward that end. It undertakes to furnish the historical background for one of the continuing problems of American librarianship - the provision of reference services in research libraries."
354,"Dewey Decimal Classification The schedules of Edition 18, like those of 17, are based on the principle of subject integrity. Both the subject matter and the notation are hierarchical, so that what is true of a given whole is true of all its parts. The schedules are developed according to logical principles, so that the classifier is guided to make correct decisions. The terminology of the classification scheme reflects the terminology used by the literature being classified.  For ease of use, this edition includes many more example notes, more detailed and precise instructions, and freer use of layman's terminology than did its immediate predecessor.  Since this edition is intended for use as a shelf-arrangement system for general libraries of all sizes, its fulness is based upon the number of titles that large libraries may be expected to acquire in various fields. Since it is also intended for use in classified catalogs and bibliographies (for which the Dewey Decimal Classification is increasingly in demand in many countries), it contains an increased number of provisions for number building."
355,"Diffusion of Abstract and Indexing Services for Government - Sponsored Research During the last several decades, science and technology have undergone a drastic transformation. The enormity and depth of this transformation can be measured in many ways. It can be measured in terms of the number of students enrolled in graduate and undergraduate schools offering degrees in the physical and applied sciences, in terms of the number of new devices, products and innovations introduced into the military establishment and into the civilian sector of our economy, in terms of the number of scientists and engineers employed by industry and public and private institutions, in terms of the amounts of money expended annually on research and development, in terms of the number of technical reports, books, journals, papers, reprints, and conference proceedings stemming from these expenditures, and in many other ways."
356,"Diffusion of Innovations This book is directed both to advanced college students enrolled in sociology courses and to students of the other social sciences (such as anthropology, economics, history, and psychology) who are concerned with diffusion. (For this reason, sociological concepts are defined when they are introduced.)  More than five hundred publications on the diffusion of innovations are reviewed here. The innovations studied range from new drugs among physicians to hand tools among primitive tribes, and from driver training among public high schools to hybrid corn among farmers. Although a generally consistent set of findings has emerged from these studies, a search of the literature shows little attempt to summarize and evaluate available results and theories on the spread of ideas. This volume synthesizes these findings and theories."
357,"Directory of Data Base in the Social and Behavioral Sciences As one of the early members of the computer community, I have been keenly interested in the development of quantitative methodologies in the social and behavioral sciences, and their encouragement by the data processing environment. The economists, with an already established mathematical orientation, were among the earliest beneficiaries of the machine technology that enhances their ability to construct the test models of economic behavior. Today, statistical methods have so affected many disciplines that it is not unusual for doctoral programs to accept statistical techniques as a substitute for one foreign language. Similarly, the ability to program in an appropriate language is also frequently as acceptable as French or German in providing the research skills needed by doctoral students at The City University of New York and at other universities.  The chief function of this directory, in terms of academic supplies of data, is not to reinventory the social science data archives that are well-known to the academic community, not to duplicate the announcements of holdings that they themselves make available to their members. The reason for mentioning them and indicating the nature of their holdings is to make this kind of data resource known to those researchers, either in or out of the university, who are not sufficiently aware of these important resources."
358,"The Disadvantaged and Library Effectiveness The report is concerned with the social utility of libraries and with the factors that appear to be requirements for effective programs. In the absence of established standards or criteria for measuring program effectiveness, we have substituted a comparative analysis of a number of programs based on detailed observation of the program process; a survey of needs and interests of the target groups, both users and nonusers; and an assessment of the library's role in the target neighborhood as it is perceived by other community institutions serving the same groups. Thus a basis for comparisons and for judgements has been introduced which provides a foundation for suggestions as to the direction in which programs of service to the disadvantaged might move.  To achieve the study objectives, library programs and practices in low-income neighborhoods were examined in a number of cities. In each of fifteen cities data were collected through interview and observation in four subject areas: (1) the needs and interests of the community residents, (2) library services in relation to other available community resources, (3) the nature and scope of the neighborhood library program and its relation to the rest of the library system, and (4) available measures of the impact or effectiveness of the program."
359,"Documentation More than half a century ago La Fontaine and Otlet started their lives' work, which at first was connected with the term ""bibliography,"" but to which gradually the work ""Documentation"" was attributed. What they developed was of a far wider scope than the establishment of a new technique dealing with printed and non-printed documents.  The great deal which inspired them, and those who worked side by side with them, was to render accessible the totality of what is crystallized from human thought and to make of it a common treasure of mankind, serving to bring mutual comprehension and to build for peace by the co-operation of all men of goodwill of all nations.  It was in this spirit that my friend Bradford joined those men, whose noble faces have passed and to whom it never was given to see the achievement of the work to which they devoted their lives.  And it was in this spirit that Bradford, thanks to his knowledge and experience as scientist as well as librarian, not only gave his strong and valuable support to the common work but added to it fundamental and constructive new elements.  Just for this reason the present book we owe to him gives far more than a mere compilation of facts and experiences. Such a compilation would indeed be welcome because, curiously enough, up to now, there is no good general treatise on documentation available. But his book gives us before all things an abundance of original ideas and creative thoughts."
360,"Documentation The current need for a manual of copying methods dealing with the processes, methods, techniques, and types of equipment which can be used for reproducing documents of a great many different kinds arises from two factors:  (1) The great importance of document reproduction processes in the acquisition, preservation, dissemination, and communication of information vital to the conduct of research work in all fields of human endeavor and on an international scale.  (2) The complexity of the field of document reproduction today which has resulted from the enormous technical advances made in the past fifteen years."
361,"Documentation Since the first publication of this work Dr. Bradford has died, and, a further edition now being called for, an attempt has been made to recognize if not to deal with some criticisms expressed on the first edition.  The principal one was that whereas the book was entitled ""Documentation"" it dealt in the main with the Universal Decimal Classification, which Bradford did much to develop, but that it neglected other aspects and instruments of the subject of which the UDC is only one, even if an important one, of various techniques."
362,"Document: Information Analysis This book considers nature and properties of document information, information characteristics of documents, the types and functions of constituents of traditional auxiliary apparatus; discusses formalization of document information; considers continuous classificatory (rank of formalization) document sequences from questionnaire distribution to matrix documents."
363,"Dynamic Information and Library Processing Among the various information processing tasks which may be carried out with computing equipment, a special class exists for which the term information takes on the literal and direct sense of recorded knowledge, or intelligence. The elements being transformed are then no longer restricted to mathematical symbols alone, but they may be words and phrases, books, documents, pictures, and other information carriers. It is that more restricted interpretation of an information process which gives rise to the field of information science, concerned with the collection, analysis, classification, storage, retrieval, transmission, and dissemination of recorded data and intelligence."
364,"Economic Analysis of the Public Libraries This study addresses itself to several questions important to all public libraries. How should the library allocate its book budget? What kinds of books should it tend to buy? What types of households use the library? Why do some households not use the library? What is the cost of the various services provided by the library? What specific steps can the library take to improve its services? What are the library's options in choosing among the different circulation systems? For how long should the library allow books to be checked out? How frequently should overdue notices be sent out? Is an investment in a security system worthwhile?  We have studied these questions in the context of one public library - the Beverly Hills (California) Public Library - and have developed a methodology for determining answers to them, as well as to other questions that arose during our investigation. Although answers will vary from library to library, our methodology is quite general and should prove useful at many public libraries."
365,"Economics of the Academic Libraries This volume represents what we believe to be as complete and thorough an analysis as possible of the available economic data on college and university libraries. In the course of our study, we have examined the data for comprehensiveness and consistency; we have investigated their intertemporal behavior, both as a basis for projection and as an instrument for long-range planning; and we have constructed a set of analytic interrelationships which permit us to derive statistical estimates of the interrelations of some of the most critical economic variables relating to library operations. In particular, in the course of this last step, we have provided relationships explaining statistically the determination of such variables as the size of libraries' budgets and the magnitude of their professional staffs."
366,"Economics of Approval Plans Current budget strains on college and university libraries require a stepped-up search for operating economies. The timely topic of economics of approval plans of the Third International Conference on Approval and Gathering Plans for Large and Medium Size Academic Libraries, held at the Ramada Inn, West Palm Beach, Florida, February 17-19, 1971, has thus generated considerable interest.  The papers published here constitute, by and large, original research in this area. The importance of these contributions can hardly be overestimated, since they will no doubt mold and influence collection development practices in the current imprint area."
367,"Economics of Book Storage This report attempts to present and interpret current (Winter 1968-69) information on the economics of book storage in relation to the other factors a university administrator must consider in developing a program for housing an ever-growing book collection when there are present or future limitations on space and money.  The study will attempt to answer two specific questions: 1) Is it economical for colleges and universities to select so-called little-used books from the regular bookstacks and store them elsewhere? 2) Is the cost factor the only one a university need consider in adopting a storage program; and, if not, how is cost related to the others?  The facts and conclusions in this report are based on the library book storage situation as of 1969. Innovations in computer applications and other technologies could presumably change the nature of some of the cost factors, but it is the author's opinion that these changes unlikely to occur within the next 5 to 10 years."
368,"Economies and Computers It is not a simple matter to describe this book. Briefly, it attempts to provide and apply a set of concepts from economic theory that may prove valuable to those who are now or may become decision- makers in the selection, financing, and/or use of computers. Only theory relevant for such decision-makers is presented here. This means that the effects of computers on the economy as a whole lie outside the scope of this book, as do a number of related issues. We deal, thus, with microeconomic, not macroeconomic, theory: our focus is on the small (industry, firm, computer) and not the large (gross national product, consumer price index, unemployment)."
369,"Economics of Defense in the Nuclear Age The purpose of this book is to explain a way of looking at military problems which we and others with whom we have been associated have found fruitful in insights and productive of solutions. Essentially we regard all military problems as, in one of their aspects, economic problems in the efficient allocation and use of resources. We believe that this way of looking at military problems goes far toward reconciling the apparent conflict of views between the officers and officials who are responsible for defense and the officials and Congressmen whose primary interest is economy - except in determining the over-all size of the military budget, where conflict between these points of view is inevitable."
370,"Educating the Library User Educating the Library User is a collection of original essays, case studies, and research reports on the problems, hopes, and techniques of instructing library users and nonusers, from the kindergartener to the preschool adult, in the effective use of libraries and their resources. Merging the library-use teachings of school, public, and academic libraries, this book demonstrates the need for a consistent, sequential plan of library-use instruction that crosses traditional library boundaries."
371,"Education and Training for Scientific and Technological Library and Information Work The exponential growth of the literature of science and technology is a phenomenon which scientists have been living with for the past 300 years. It is in the nature of such growth that its effect is recognized only slowly, but when a critical point is reached its consequences can be overwhelming. In science information this point has now been reached. To take but one field, chemistry, it took well over two centuries for the first million papers to be published, and over 30 years, from 1907 to 1938, for the first million to be abstracted in Chemical Abstracts. We are now at the stage where one million papers have been abstracted in a five-year period - 1962-1967 - and before 1975 the point will have been reached where one million papers, equal to the output of the whole pre-war generation of chemists, will be published and abstracted in a single year. The first scientific serial began publication in 1665. Some 290 years later, in 1956, the Science Museum Library was receiving 9,000 current scientific serials. Within only a further 11 years the National Lending Library for Science and Technology (N.L.L.) was receiving over three times this number. The growth in the use of scientific literature is no less spectacular. Thus, for example, in 1930 the number of loans by the Science Museum Library was 10,000. In 1967 the N.L.L., which had taken over the national lending function of the Science Museum Library, lent well over half-a-million items, a total exceeding that of all the loans by the Science Museum Library between 1929 and 1947 (a period which itself saw the discovery of nuclear fission and its application for peaceful uses, enormous progress in antibiotics, developments in synthetic materials and great advances in all branches of science and technology). There are some signs that the rate of increase implied in these examples may not be maintained, but any flattening-out that may develop will be at a very high level indeed."
372,"Efficiency of the Scientific Information This book considers basic tendency of the development of information science, theoretically proves necessity and feasibility (possibility) of determining the economical effectiveness of scientific-technical information."
373,"Some User Requirements Stated Quantitatively in Terms of the 90 Percent Library Librarians, publishers, and information system engineers have very little verified information and few guidelines to describe the user's specific requirements for information. Such information is needed to properly design or evaluate the information systems. To date, most of the statements of requirements have been rather subjective, and often reflect opinion rather than actual fact. Relatively little objective data have been obtained. This is probably due in large part to the fact that there are extremely difficult methodological problems in trying to determine and state user requirements in a meaningful manner. This paper suggests an approach or point of view that might help this situation by providing a method of phrasing the statements of user requirements in a more convenient and meaningful manner. This paper also furnishes several examples of such statements, and discusses the techniques and data that support these statements.  In this paper, attention is initially focused on the information requirements of workers in the field of science and technology, with no serious attempt made to include workers in other fields. However, it seems quite likely that the approach, and perhaps even the stated principles, could be extended and generalized to cover other fields of knowledge."
374,"Electronic Data Processing in the University Library Following five years of experience with the mechanization of procedures using data processing equipment, the university library in Bochum is attempting to summarize its findings. A comparison with earlier publications about the use of electronic data processing equipment shows in what measure the original plans have actually been affected by the experience that has been gained. This summary also serves as a report for the wider public that may be interested in technical questions of library processing."
375,"Encyclopedia of Information Systems and Services The processing and transfer of information is an important activity of many thousands of libraries, research institutes, educational institutions, professional and trade associations, non-profit organizations, publishing houses, government agencies, and others. All of these groups are already listed in a variety of existing directories. This publication, on the other hand, has selected from the above groups, those organizations and services which are principally concerned with storage, retrieval, and dissemination of information, and in addition, are innovative, experimental, or non- conventional. A major emphasis is on computerization, micrographics, networks, advanced reference services, information centers, and data banks.  The Encyclopedia of Information Systems and Services includes descriptions of the following types of services and facilities:         Information Centers     Computerized Systems and Services     Networks and Cooperative Programs     Data Banks     Documentation Centers 	Information Storage and Retrieval Systems 	Micrographic Systems and Services     Research Centers and Projects     Clearinghouses and Referral Centerss     Consulting and Planning Organizations and Services 	Information Offices     Industrial Research Information Centers     Professional Associations     Specialized Library Reference Services"
376,"Encyclopedia of Information Systems and Services This publication describes and analyzes approximately 1750 organizations concerned with new forms, new media, and new methods for providing information services. Among these organizations are publishers, computer software and time- sharing companies, micrographic firms, libraries, information centers, and consultants. The common interest of these diverse organizations is in service based on storage and representation of structured information with output on a recurring or demand basis. The concept of information as used throughout this book is defined as data organized into a collection of facts and most often recorded in two basic forms: 1) textual data or literature, and 2) numeric data.  Roles played by the organizations described on the following pages vary but include one or more of the following functions: data base creation, data base publishing, data transmission, data manipulation and analysis, and data storage and retrieval. Emphasis in this publication is on organizations involved in computerized services, micrographic applications, selective dissemination of information (SDI), and networking.  Not included in the Encyclopedia of Information Systems and Services are printed commercial and legal services, traditional academic and special libraries, public information offices, hardware manufacturers and distributors within the computer and micrographic field, conventional indexing and abstracting services, and most library automation programs which are limited to such housekeeping functions as circulation, serials control, and acquisitions."
377,"Citation Indexes Citation indexing is a relatively new method of organizing the contents of a collection of documents in a way that overcomes many of the shortcomings of the more traditional indexing methods. The primary advantage of citation indexing is that it identifies relationships between documents that are often overlooked in a subject index. An important secondary advantage is that the compilation of citation indexes is especially well suited to the use of man-machine indexing methods that do not require indexers who are subject specialists. Furthermore, citations, which are bibliographic descriptions of documents, are not vulnerable to scientific and technological obsolescence as are the terms used in subject indexes."
378,"Dialog Interactive Information Retrieval System DIALOG is the name given to an interactive, computer-based information retrieval language developed at the Lockheed Palo Alto Research Laboratory.  The DIALOG systems consists of a series of computer programs which have been designed to make full use of direct access memory devices (in which data located anywhere on the device can be accessed in approximately the same amount of time) and video display units to provide the user a rapid and powerful means of identifying records within a file which satisfy the particular information need. By providing the user full display access to the indexing vocabulary, and the ability to modify search expressions, DIALOG becomes a data processing extension of the human operator who directs and controls the process according to his own personal needs."
379,"Sources of Information on Specific Subjects An alternative hypothesis to be investigated is that, to a considerable extent, the references are scattered throughout all periodicals with a frequency approximately related inversely to the scope. On this hypothesis, the aggregate of periodicals can be divided into classes according to relevance of scope to the subject concerned, but the more remote classes will, in the aggregate, produce as many references as the more related classes. The whole range of periodicals thus acts as a family of successive generations of diminishing kinship, each generation being greater in number than the preceding, and each constituent of a generation producing inversely according to its degree of remoteness.  The investigation covered, in the first place, the references quoted, in the course of four and two and a-half years respectively, by the current bibliographies of Applied Geophysics and Lubrication, which are prepared in the library. The source of each reference being given, it was possible to arrange the sources in order of productivity, the results being set down in columns A and B of the table, in the previous column."
380,"Error-correcting Codes Several major developments have contributed to the rapid emergence of the field of error-correcting codes over the past two decades. Externally, the cost of solid-state electronic devices has decreased almost as dramatically as their size. This has stimulated the development of digital computers and peripheral devices and this, in turn, has caused a dramatic increase in the volume of data communicated between such machines. The intolerance of computing systems to error, and in some cases the inherently critical nature of the data demand the use of either error-free facilities or some type of error-detecting or correcting code in the terminal devices. In many cases the latter approach is the more economical."
381,"The Evaluation of Information Services and Products The continuing need to put scientists in contact with the research of others, coupled with the rapidly expanding volume of published material during the past several decades, has placed new emphasis on the old arts of assembling, coding, and disseminating recorded knowledge. In some instances, the emphasis has manifested itself in research on improvement of traditional library systems. In other instances, it has resulted in the assembly of specialized collections and their intensive indexing for access in a variety of ways. Still other systems have progressed from the passive role of responding to requests to the active role of supplying documents, or references to them, to researchers as the documents become available. For lack of a more descriptive terminology, all of these activities are referred to in this book as ""document transfer systems,"" implying that the product being retrieved (or disseminated) is a document rather than the information (if any) in it. That is, intelligence systems or fact retrieval systems (if facts are indeed retrieved) are excluded from our concern. The document, of course, may be a book, a journal article, a drawing, an abstract, a piece of film, or a piece of magnetic tape."
382,"Evaluation of MEDLARS Documentation This report presents the results of a detailed analysis by the National Library of Medicine of the performance of MEDLARS (its Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System) in relation to 300 actual requests made to the system in 1966 and 1967. Thanks to this study, we now know considerably more about the requirements of MEDLARS users, how well the system is meeting these requirements, and what we must do to improve the overall performance level. The investigation is timely: the Library is now planning a second-generation MEDLARS, and the design of MEDLARS II should benefit greatly from our knowledge of factors affecting the performance of the present system."
383,"Evaluation of Micropublishing Micropublishing, as it pertains to library materials, is essentially a form of the republishing of materials no longer in print. The need for such materials of many kinds - monographs, serials, newspapers, reference works - has grown greatly during the past quarter century and this need is reflected in the growth of the micropublishing industry. As new colleges and junior colleges are founded, and established colleges and universities continue to expand to meet growing educational needs, both groups of institutions find that in more and more instances the materials they need are available only in microform. As a result, the ratio of microforms to books in college and research libraries has been steadily rising."
384,Evaluation of the World Food Literature This publication presents the culmination of a concerted International effort to survey the relevant world's scientific and technological literature for its food science and technology content as a preliminary step towards the establishment of a comprehensive abstracting and documentation service in this field.
385,"Evaluative Research Principles and Practice in Public Service and Social Action Programs In these days of large government programs intended to reduce poverty, develop communities, prevent delinquency and crime, control disease, and reconstruct cities, the predominant rhetoric is that of planning, pilot projects, experimental and demonstration programs - and evaluation. Those who seek to select for support the more promising plans and projects submitted to funding agencies have become habituated to the ritualistic inclusion in the proposal of a final section on Evaluation. In most cases this section consists of sometimes grandiose but usually vague statements of intent and procedure for assessing the impact of the proposed action. In some cases there is an elegant, highly academic, and impractical scheme worked out in meticulous detail by an obviously talented research consultant. In a few treasured instances there is a well-considered, realistic, and workmanlike plan for getting some fairly reliable answers to the questions of what worked and why."
386,"Informal Communication in Science: Its Advantages and its Formal Analogues Formal and informal scientific communication are complementary; they must not be thought of as alternatives in the sense that, perhaps, certain messages are obtained exclusively through the printed word, the library, and the mechanized search-and-retrieval system, whereas others are obtained by the exclusive use of word-of-mouth and the telephone. The much more typical event is one in which the receipt of a single message is secured by the successive interplay of these two kinds of communication. For any given transaction between a scientist as a receiver of information and the channel that brings him that information usually has a history behind it and a future ahead of it that may be very relevant to the evaluation of the success of that transaction and to the prognosis of whether this kind of transaction will happen again with similar results."
387,"The Foundations of Education for Librarianship The study is a result of a theory of librarianship which has been in the process of maturation for more than a quarter century of teaching and administration, first at the University of Chicago, and subsequently at Western Reserve University, now Case Western Reserve University, and which has been elaborated in essays and addresses as the inquiry progressed.   My purpose has been to explore the role of the library as it contributes to the total communication system in society and the meaning of that role for the library profession, and having determined the requirements of that role to identify those which are appropriately met by graduate professional education. Therefore, the inquiry begins with a consideration of the communication system within the individual as related to his physiological, neurological, and psychological structure, and its meaning for learning and reading patterns and characteristics. The study then progresses to an exposition of the cultural environment and its communication system in society, together with the place of the library in it."
388,"A Guide to the Construction and Use of Special Schemes The use of classification in libraries is traditional and its value is appreciated. For documentation and information retrieval in general, other techniques such as alphabetical indexing and machine selection are also available. That classification is of value in information retrieval as well as in book arrangement is, however, made evident in two ways. First, to achieve consistency and subtlety in alphabetical indexing and machine selection designers of such retrieval systems find the need to introduce classificatory techniques. Second, there is a continuing demand for the construction of special classifications for detailed arrangement and cataloguing of documents in restricted but intensively cultivated fields of knowledge.  It is to help meet these demands, particularly the second, that this guide has been prepared. The techniques of detailed depth classification have been greatly developed during the past decade, and instruments of much greater subtlety and efficiency than the traditional 'tree-of-knowledge' schemes can now be designed. These developments have been reported mainly as research papers in a variety of library journals and are often made unnecessarily difficult to follow by the use of unfamiliar terminology. There is a need for a more simply written and more readily available practical guide to the use of the newer techniques of classification."
389,"Factors Determining the Performance of Indexing Systems The original Aslib-Cranfield investigations on the efficiency of indexing systems (references 1, 2 and 3) did not, by itself, produce firm answers to what is one of the basic problems in information retrieval, namely the decision as to which index language should be used. Certainly it did not, as some people had anticipated, demonstrate that one system was 'better' than another, either generally, or in any given situation."
390,"Factors Determining the Performance of Indexing Systems The test results are presented for a number of different index languages using various devices which affect recall or precision. Within the environment of this test, it is shown that the best performance was obtained with the group of eight index languages which used single terms. The group of fifteen index languages which were based on concepts gave the worst performance, while a group of six index languages based on the Thesaurus of Engineering Terms of the Engineers Joint Council were intermediary. Of the single term index languages, the only method of improving performance was to group synonyms and word forms, and any broader groupings of terms depressed performance. The use of precision devices such as links gave no advantage as compared to the basic device of simple coordination."
391,"Factors in the Transfer of Technology The strong correlation between the scope and depth of this country's research and development activities and the vigor and the growth of its industrial plant is today a widely accepted fact. Government expenditures for research and development have increased from a modest annual rate of $200 million some thirty years ago to $17 billion today. The research budgets of the private sector of the economy, which were almost miniscule in the 1930's, total approximately $8 billion today. These expenditures have had their many tangible and visible results, ranging from nylon and antibiotics to radar and solid state electronics, but what is not so generally appreciated is the additional product represented by the increasing inventory of ideas and new knowledge whose application, for the most part, is still a potential one. The sophisticated and often urgent nature of some of the larger products in which we engage today, which require vast research expenditures to find the efficient way, or the economical way, or the safe way, or the most accurate way to accomplish some end purpose, also produces an increase in the national level of scientific and technological competence that has not yet been transferred into the civilian economy. The value of the technical ideas now stored and awaiting application can be estimated as a value many times larger than the annual rate of billions of dollars invested in the effort it took to develop this increased technical capability. As a national resource for underwriting further economic and industrial development, this technical inventory is a factor of major importance."
392,"Faculty Status for Librarians The purpose of this study is: (1) to review the history of the struggle for faculty status for librarians and some of the arguments advanced in support of that objective; and (2) to gather information on the similarities and differences between librarians and faculty members in the broad areas of preparation, contributions, and rewards. With detailed information on such matters as education, salaries, professional experience, tenure, sabbaticals, participation in academic government, and scholarly activity of librarians and faculty members, one should be able to judge whether librarians receive unfair or unequal treatment."
393,"Farewell to Alexandria Solution to space, growth, and performance problems of libraries The publication of this collection of essays opens a new era for libraries, taking the first departure in 2,300 years from that durable model conceived by the librarians of Alexandria and endlessly replicated by every succeeding generation of librarians, right down to the present day. The Alexandrian model persists through the unexamined faith that to be good a library must be vast and always growing. The papers presented here examine that faith scientifically, demonstrate that it rests on nothing more solid than mistaken intuition, and consign it to the limbo of outworn dogmas."
394,"A Feasibility Study of Centralized and Regionalized Inter-Library Loan Centers The two major problems of the present system are (1) the unequal distribution of lending, with a few of the largest libraries handling a large proportion of the requests, and (2) the difficulty of filling requests which are incomplete, incorrect, or inadequately checked.  Solutions proposed for these two problems have been (1) compensation to the largest libraries for each transaction, and (2) better bibliographic checking of requests before they are forwarded to the lending library."
395,"Biomedical Literature: Volume, Growth, and Other Characteristics This study's aim was to gather and analyze reliable data on the quantifiable characteristics of the biomedical literature that affects communication problems within the research community. Previous studies and standard bibliographic compilations were critically reviewed, particularly for data that could be used to determine changes with time. In addition, all publications generated during 1961-1962 by the extramural and intramural research programs of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) were analyzed as samples of the current document output of US research."
396,"Formal Languages This book develops a theory of formal languages from the point of view of generative devices, mainly grammars. Recognition devices, automata, are introduced only as a secondary tool and are themselves presented within the framework of rewriting systems.  The main emphasis is on mathematical aspects of formal languages rather than application. People interested only in applications to programming languages (resp. natural languages) would certainly prefer a more comprehensive discussion on topics such as LR(k) grammars (resp. transformational grammars). Such discussions lie outside the scope of this book."
397,"Formal Languages and Their Relation to Automata This book presents the theory of formal languages as a coherent theory and makes explicit its relationship to automata. The book begins with an explanation of the notion of a finite description of a language. The fundamental descriptive device - the grammar - is explained, as well as its three major subclasses - regular, context-free, and context-sensitive grammars. The context-free grammars are treated in detail, and such topics as normal forms, derivation trees, and ambiguity are covered. Four types of automata equivalent to the four types of grammars are described. These automata are the finite automaton, the pushdown automaton, the linear bounded automaton, and the Turing machine. The Turing machine is covered in detail, and unsolvability of the halting problem shown. The book concludes with certain advanced topics in language theory - closure properties, computational complexity, deterministic pushdown automata, LR(k) grammars, stack automata, and decidability."
398,"Informal Channels of Communication In the Behavioral Sciences: Their Relevance In the Structuring of Formal or Bibliographic Communication What are the needs being served by informal communication? What can be done about giving informal communication, without destroying its function for the active researcher, certain of the advantages of formal communication, such as, general accessibility, permanence, etc.? How can formal channels be manipulated to take on the characteristics of informal communication? To cast light on these questions the present paper examines the role of informal and formal channels within the overall system of scientific dissemination in psychology, considers the special advantages of informal communication, and outlines certain relations between informal and formal channels. In a final section of the paper, two experiments in scientific communication are described; one experiment being built about an innovation that attempts to ""informalize"" formal channels while the other is built about another innovation that, in general, attempts to ""formalize"" an informal channel."
399,"Functional Approach The present book sums up a certain stage in the research on algebraic linguistics being pursued at Charles University, Prague. It is based mainly on P. Sgall's book (1967a, in Czech), which represents the first attempt at a systematic formulation of the conception of generative description that has gradually been elaborated by our research group.  We do not claim that any particular question has been answered here in a definitive way, but the conception of a generative system based on an articulation of the semantic relation (see Section 1.3.4) may perhaps be interesting in connection with the present development of algebraic linguistics. This conception originated in 1963-1964, mainly as a reaction to the existing form of transformational description. It has not yet been possible to take the more recent impulses into account to an extent that would be adequate to their scope and theoretical significance. Only some aspects of these impulses are commented on in the relevant parts of the present book. We do not present a complete characterization of a system that could be regarded as a counterpart to the new version of transformational grammar. We have simply tried to formulate a conception that can serve as a starting point for the development of a new alternative."
400,"Future Developments in Telecommunications Communication technology has entered a period of revolutionary change.  The last decade has brought new inventions of enormous potential. It will probably be two decades before we fully grasp the shattering effect they will have on society.  These inventions include:  The communication satellite. Suddenly this has provided telephone and television links to the underdeveloped world. Much larger satellites will be built and will have an enormous impact on education and communications both in the United States and throughout the world. The satellite antennae in some underdeveloped countries stand next to fields ploughed by oxen.  The helical waveguide. A pipe, now operating, that can carry 250,000 simultaneous telephone calls or equivalent information over long distances.  The laser. This means of transmission, still in the research laboratory, has the potential of carrying many millions of simultaneous telephone calls or their equivalent.  Large-scale integration (LSI). A form of ultraminiaturized computer circuitry that probably marks the beginning of mass production of computers and computerlike logic circuitry. It offers the potential of extremely reliable, extremely small, and, in some of its forms, extremely fast computers. If large-enough quantities can be built, this circuitry can become very low in cost.  On-line real-time computers. Computers capable of responding to many distant terminals on telecommunication lines at a speed geared to human thinking. They have the potential of bringing the power and information of innumerable computers into every office and eventually every home.  Picturephone. A public dial-up telephone system in which subscribers see as well as hear each other.  Large TV screens. TV screens that can occupy a whole wall if necessary.  Cable TV. Provides a cable into homes with a potential signal-carrying capacity more than one thousand times that of the telephone cable. It could be used for signals other than television.  Voice answerback. Computers can now assembly human-voice words and speak them over the telephone. This fact, coupled with the Touchtone telephone set, makes every such telephone a potential computer terminal.  Millimeter-wave radio. Radio at frequencies in the band above the microwave band can relay a quantity of information greater than all the other radio bands combined. Chains of closely spaced antennas will distribute these millimeter-wave signals.  Pulse code modulation. All signals, including telephone, Picturephone, music, facsimile, and television can be converted into digital bit stream and transmitted, along with computer data, over the same digital links. Major advantages accrue from this.  Computerized switching. Computerized telephone exchanges are coming into operation, and computer-like logic can be employed for switching and ""concentrating"" all types of signals.  Data banks. Electronic storage for huge quantities of information that can be manipulated and indexed by computers and that can be accessed in a fraction of a second."
401,"Future Shock This is a book about what happens to people when they are overwhelmed by change. It is about the ways in which we adapt - or fail to adapt - to the future.  Much has been written about the future. Yet, for the most part, books about the world to come sound a harsh metallic note. These pages, by contrast, concern themselves with the ""soft"" or human side of tomorrow. Moreover, they concern themselves with the steps by which we are likely to reach tomorrow. They deal with common, everyday matters - the products we buy and discard, the places we leave behind, the corporations we inhabit, the people who pass at an ever faster clip through our lives. The future of friendship and family life in probed. Strange new subcultures and life styles are investigated, along with an array of other subjects from politics and playgrounds to skydiving and sex."
402,"The government of the American Public Library The major purpose of this study is to describe, analyze, and evaluate the position of the public library in the structure of government in the United States. The use of the word ""government"" in the title, therefore, is deliberate. We are here concerned with the legal forms and types of governmental organization of the public library and with its relation to the city or other political unit to which it is attached or which it serves."
403,"Government Publications: A Guide to Bibliographic Tools The expansion of government at all levels - international, national, provincial or state, and local - has resulted in increasing government influence on the life of each citizen. Concomitant with this development is the proliferation of published directives, regulations, reports, technical studies, and other informational issuances in such volume that no one engaged in a business or profession, no financial tycoon, educator, researcher, farmer, housewife, welfare recipient, or unemployed person can function without some reference to government publications. Yet, in few areas of recorded human knowledge have control and bibliographic aids been so little systemized.  The present work, designed to provide the prospective user as well as the trained researcher and librarian with a guide to the maze, is a direct descendant of the Childs essay. The extent to which the mass of published material has grown is underscored by the contrasting physical size of the two publications; Childs' was a 78-page pamphlet containing approximately 400 entries whereas this book of over 400 pages cites more than 3,000 titles."
404,"A Guide to the Library of Congress Classification This guide is an introduction to the Library of Congress Classification; as such, it does not include instructions for every subclass or table, but attempts to provide the reader with an understanding of the characteristics of the classification, the arrangement within the classes, the format of the schedules and tables, and special problems of use and notation. The reader should trace the analysis of each example of classing through the pages from the L.C. schedule provided in the guide. It is important to remind the reader that a thorough study of each class schedule in addition to the recommended readings is essential. The author realizes that many imperfections may be present in this guide and will appreciate suggestions for changes from readers."
405,"Guide to Reference Books The fundamental principles of reference work remain more or less constant through the years, but the rapid expansion of the publication of reference books in all fields makes essential a careful selection to fit the needs of each library. The purpose of this volume is to list reference books basic to research - general and special - and thus to serve as: (1) a reference manual for the library assistant, research worker, or other user of library resources; (2) a selection aid for the librarian; and (3) a textbook for the student, who, either in library school, training class, or college course in bibliography, is pursuing a systematic study of reference books.  The needs of these types of users have influenced the organization and make-up of this volume, in that the requirements of the first two groups have made the manual more comprehensive than it might have been if intended for a textbook only, while the introductions to sections and many of the annotations have been provided particularly for the library school student."
406,"Guidelines for Library Automation; a Handbook for Federal and Other Libraries This book is one of the products of a contract initiated by the Automation Task Force of the Federal Library Committee, sponsored and monitored by the U.S. Office of Education, and carried out by the System Development Corporation. The project included a questionnaire survey of all Federal libraries (2104), as of December, 1970, to gather systems planning data and to identify Federal libraries with operational or planned automated systems. Respondents in the latter group were sent a Federal Library Automation Survey questionnaire requesting specific details about existing and planned systems. From these sources, amplified by visits to Federal libraries and an extensive review of the automation literature, information was distilled for use in this Handbook."
407,"Handbook of Comparative Librarianship The first part, written by myself, deals with 'Comparative librarianship and comparative method' and is intended for both teachers of comparative librarianship and their students. It can be approached in a number of ways: The first three chapters outline comparative librarianship and the theoretical basis of its methodology against the wider background of other comparative sciences and the scientific method. The three chapters following are purely practical and explain the various steps of writing a comparative study. The last chapter is intended for teachers.  The second part, compiled by Mrs. MacKee, is a bibliographical guide to the main sources on librarianship throughout the world. It draws on the bibliographies collected by comparative librarianship students in the course of their project work, on replies to a questionnaire sent to the various library associations of the world, and on Mrs. MacKee's own collection of references gathered over a number of years."
408,"Handbook of Data Processing for Libraries The purpose of this book, therefore, is to assist libraries and librarians in resolving some of the problems faced in utilizing this new technology. The intent is to provide a concrete, factual guide to the principles and methods available for the application of modern data processing to library operations. For the operating librarian, it should be considered a handbook, a tool to guide him in decisions concerning the introduction of data processing techniques into his own library. For the student, it should be a textbook, educating him not only in methodology but also in the interrelationships between data processing and the library. For the system designer, it should be a summary of the state-of-the-art, serving as a bridge between library objectives and the technology. The book, throughout, lays special stress on the library and, particularly, on the significance of library values and policies for determining the choice of system. The book gives emphasis to the computer, but always in the context of applying this technology to the solution of operating problems, as an addition to resources for information service, as a tool of good management, and not as an end in itself. At most, therefore, the book aims to educate the profession in the use of these tools, and in the special problems of applying them to libraries. In this respect, much of the groundwork has already been done - the profession has been educating itself, has carried out analyses of library operations, has experimented with mechanization, and is developing better concepts of cost control. The book merely continues a process that is already underway."
409,"HDB of Data Processing for Libraries The four years since the first edition of this book was published have been a period of exceptional advance in the usage of computers in libraries. Where one or two examples were all that were available at that time to illustrate each kind of application, now there are five to ten; where the cadre of knowledgeable people in libraries at that time was small, now virtually every major library has some kind of systems department; where the efforts at that time were largely experimental and developmental, now there is a wealth. This second edition has therefore been written in a context totally different from that of the first.  But its aims are the same; to ensure that practicing librarians and that students in library schools approach the world of automation with knowledge of its capabilities and limitations and with the techniques of systems analysis by which to analyze and evaluate alternative answers to the library's processing problems. The changes from the first edition therefore represent not a departure from that purpose but simply an updating of its content, to reflect the advances and experience gained, and an opportunity to correct the errors (hopefully minor) that have been found through use of the first edition."
410,"Handbook of Medical Library Practice The Medical Library Association has long been aware of the need for a third edition of the Handbook. Changes in library practices, proliferating demands upon established libraries, and the development of new ones created the need of an up-to-date tool. Like the earlier editions, this Handbook is such a tool, a manual, not a survey of the state of the art. It offers practical advice to all - fledgling librarians starting their careers, experienced librarians transferring to the field of health sciences, established medical librarians refreshing memories or adopting procedures unfamiliar to them, and specialists in related fields."
411,"Handbook of the National and International Libraries Two methods were used: (1) A thorough search of professional literature, principally since 1965, with exceptions in cases where no later information was available, and (2) direct communication with associations through a questionnaire and consultation of supplementary material provided by the associations. The final result of the authors' search was a total of 319 library associations, 33 international in scope and 286 national (see Statistical Data)."
412,"The Hidden Dimension Generally speaking, there are two types of books of interest to the serious reader today: those that are content oriented, designed to convey a particular body of knowledge, and those that deal with structure, the way in which events are organized. It is doubtful if an author has any control over which of these two types of books he writes, though it is desirable that he be aware of the difference. The same applies to the reader whose satisfaction depends largely on his unstated expectations. In today's world, when all of us are overwhelmed with data from many sources, it is easy to understand why people are apt to feel that they are losing touch with developments even in their own field. One senses that there is also a growing awareness of a loss of relatedness to the world at large. This loss of relatedness leads to an increased need for organizing frames of reference to aid in intergrating the mass of rapidly changing information with which man must cope. The Hidden Dimension attempts to provide just this."
413,"Historical Introduction to Library School This is a revision and enlargement of Origins of the American Library School.   Someone has observed that the roots of the present lie deep in the past and must be uncovered to understand fully how the present came to be what it is. This study is less a descriptive history of library schools and their work than a search for perspective within which major problems, as well as the course pursued in resolving them, can be more fully understood. The original study, begun in 1941-42, sought to throw light on how library education at that time came to be what is was. The present study continues beyond the early forming of the American library school to the reforming of basic lines of policy and organization. A new title is used to reflect the broadened scope."
414,"The History of Libraries in the Western World The present work is an attempt to trace the history of libraries in the western world: to indicate how libraries developed and how they influenced the social and cultural history of our civilization. The book is intended for the student of library science or of cultural history and for the general reader interested in the development of western civilization. Much has been omitted concerning libraries and librarians that could have been included; conversely, some facts could have been omitted without seriously detracting from the story as a whole but have been included to illustrate how library history developed; they point out the high spots and indicate trends."
415,"90 Recommended Journals for the Hospital's Health Science Library Choosing from the growing number of medical and paramedical journals is becoming increasingly difficult for the health science librarian, the author states. She describes a survey of librarians and directors of medical education to obtain recommendations on titles to form a core journal collection and lists in order of preference the 90 top-ranking titles."
416,"Human Behavior and the Principles of Least Effort An Introduction to Human Ecology Nearly twenty-five years ago it occurred to me that we might gain considerable insight into the mainsprings of human behavior if we viewed it purely as a natural phenomenon like everything else in the universe, and if we studied it with the same dispassionate objectivity with which one is wont to study, say, the social behavior of bees, or the nestbuilding habits of birds. The present book reports the results of the extended inquiry that ensued in the course of those years, and which led to the disclosure of some fundamental principles that seem to govern important aspects of our behavior, both as individuals and as members of social groups."
417,"Human Problem Solving The present study is concerned with the performance of intelligent adults in our own culture. The tasks discussed are short (half-hour), moderately difficult problems of a symbolic nature. The three main tasks we use - chess, symbolic logic, and algebra-like puzzles (called cryptarithmetic puzzles) - typify this class of problems. The study is concerned with the integrated activities that constitute problem solving. It is not centrally concerned with perception, motor skill, or what are called personality variables. The study is concerned primarily with performance, only a little with learning, and not at all with development or differences related to age. Finally, it is concerned with integrated activities, hence deemphasizes the details of processing on the time scale of elementary reactions (that is, half a second or less). Similarly, long-term integrated activities extending over periods of days or years receive no attention."
418,"The Human Side of Enterprise This volume is an attempt to substantiate the thesis that the human side of enterprise is ""all of a piece"" - that the theoretical assumptions management holds about controlling its human resources determine the whole character of the enterprise. They determine also the quality of its successive generations of management.   Of course the process is circular, and herein lies the possibility and the hope of future progress. The key question for top management is: ""What are your assumptions (implicit as well as explicit) about the most effective way to manage people?"" From the answer to this question flow the answers to the questions Mr. Sloan raised in our discussion about the making of managers, as well as answers to many other questions which perplex and confound management as it seeks to achieve more successfully the economic objectives of enterprise. It will be clear to the reader that I believe many of our present assumptions about the most effective way to manage people are far from adequate."
419,"A Statistical Approach to Mechanized Encoding and Searching of Literary Information Written communication of ideas is carried out on the basis of statistical probability in that a writer chooses that level of subject specificity and that combination of words which he feels will convey the most meaning.. Since this process varies among individuals and since similar ideas are therefore relayed of different levels of specificity and by means of different words, the problem of literature searching by machines still present major difficulties.. A statistical approach to this problem will be outlined and the various steps of a system based on this approach will be described.. Steps include the statistical analysis of a collection of document in a field of interest, the establishment of a set of ""notions"" and the vocabulary by which they are expressed, the compilation of a thesaurus-type dictionary and index, the automatic encoding of documents by machine with the aid of such a dictionary, the encoding of topological notations (such as branches structures), the recording of the coded information, the establishment of a searching pattern for finding pertinent information, and the programming of appropriate machines to carry out a search.."
420,"The Automatic Creation of Literature Abstracts Experts of technical papers and magazine articles that serve the purposes of conventional abstracts have been created entirely by automatic means.. In the exploratory research described, the complete text of an article in machine- readable form is scanned by an IBM 704 data-processing machine and analyzed in accordance with a standard program.. Statistical information derived from word frequency and distribution is used by the machine to compute a relative measure of significance, first for individual words and then for sentences.. Sentences scoring highest in significance are extracted and printed out to become the ""auto-abstract"".."
421,"A Business Intelligence System An automatic system is being developed to disseminate information to the various sections of any industrial, scientific or government organization.. This intelligence system will utilize data-processing machines for auto- abstracting and auto-encoding of documents and for creating interest profiles for each of the ""action points"" in an organization.. Both incoming and internally generated documents are automatically abstracted, characterized by a word pattern, and sent automatically to appropriate action points.. This paper shows the flexibility of such a system in identifying known information, in finding who needs to know it and in disseminating it efficiently either in abstract form or as a complete document.."
422,"On Some Clustering Techniques The problem of organizing a large mass of data occurs frequently in research.. Normally, some process of generalization is used to compress the data so that it can be analyzed more easily.. A primitive step in this process is the ""clustering"" technique, which involves gathering together similar data into a cluster to permit a significant generalization..  This paper describes a number of methods which make use of IBM 7090 computer programs to do clustering.. A medical research problem is used to illustrate and compare these methods.."
423,"R and D Project Selection: Where We Stand A review of the literature on R and D project selection and an analysis of interview data suggest that there is a lack of testing and use of the methods proposed.. Several OR-MS methods are identified and their current status is indicated.. Three representative procedures are examined in some detail.. It is argued that both a lack of testing concerning feasibility and shortcomings of the models themselves, help to explain why the methods have not been used.. Some of these shortcomings are identified and discussed.. Implications for future research are presented.."
424,"A Method for Allocating R & D Expenditures The analytical problems of developing quantitative techniques for R & D investment management are often complicated by the existence of conflicting goals.. Corporate goals may require the R & D manager to simultaneously seek the highest probable profits, the largest probable number of successes, and the greatest probable profit per dollar spent.. Departmental goals may restrict the manager to some maximum budget, a minimum number of projects to be worked on, and minimum levels of accomplishment on specific projects.. In a sense, then, the research manager is faced with a constrained multiple-output production problem: how much to spend on which project and how much to spend overall.. This paper shows how a slight modification of Hess' approach to project selection and an analogy to the theoretical economics of a multiple-product factory have been used to help our research management simultaneously solve these project selection, resource allocation, and budget determination problems.. Most approaches in the literature have treated these three problems separately.."
425,"The Selection of R&D Program Content-Survey of Quantitative Methods This paper presents a summary of methods of evaluating and selecting R&D projects.. Approximately thirty methods, which have appeared is scattered places in the literature, are described briefly, and a bibliography is provided for further information.. The various methods are compared and contrasted with each other relative to a standard set of features which they may possess, to a standard set of characteristics relating to ease of use, and to scientific or technological area of applicability.."
426,"The Effects of Perceived Need and Means on the Generation of Ideas for Industrial Research and Development Projects A flow model is presented which identifies some of the organizational factors influencing idea generation behavior in industrial R&D laboratories.. The model is constructed from literature-based propositions which make explicit the role played by several organizational factors identified in the model.. Data were collected on about 300 ideas created in a divisional laboratory of a major U.S. corporation.. In general, these data support the a priori propositions.. Further, data analysis suggests that two pieces of information are required before an idea is generated: 1) knowledge of a need, problem, or opportunity relevant to the company; and, 2) knowledge of a means or technique for satisfying the need, solving the problem, or capitalizing on the opportunity.. These results are discussed with respect to the stage of creative thought proposed by other investigators.. Finally, the organizational events, which were associated as ""needs"" events or ""means"" events for the ideas studies, are identified and analyzed with respect to both quantity and quality of ideas.."
427,"The Validity of Subjective Probability of Success Forecasts by R & D Project Managers Models and techniques to aid management in planning controlling R&D projects frequently use subjective probability of success forecasts as one of the major inputs. An experiment was conducted at the research laboratories of Monsanto Company to measure the predictive validity and consistency of such forecasts. The results indicate that the eventual success or failure of certain types of R&D projects can be predicted by measuring the time shape of polled probability of success forecasts. Probability of success forecasts appear to yield more valid advance warning indicators than several commonly used project status measures. These results tend to support the hypothesis that R&D planning and control models that are based on subjective probability estimates may reliably be used by management to aid in early identification of eventually failing projects, as well as to aid in project selection and project funding."
428,"Analysis of Some Portfolio Selection Models for R&D This paper presents the analytical review of mathematical programming models that have been proposed as aids to the related problems of resources allocation and project selection in R&D.. The models are classified according to whether they are based on linear, integer, chance constrained, or dynamic programming.. Representative examples from these classes are described and evaluated in detail.. The evaluation is on terms of data requirements; built-in assumptions; ease of computation; usefulness of outputs; versatility of application.."
429,"The Information Content of Titles in Engineering Literature Since many alerting and information services rely very heavily on the use of titles to transfer information to the potential user, it is essential that he be aware of the proportion of the information contained in the complete document which will not be deducible from the title and which he will therefore miss.. Methods will be discussed for analyzing the relative information content of the titles of engineering paper and results presented for the amount and type of information lost through scanning title listing only..  Between one-third and one-half of indexable terms are not retrievable from article titles even if all possible synonyms and related terms are used.. If all synonyms are used instead of one keyword the amount of information retrieved is increased by about 70 percent.. The problems of dealing with synonyms and with syntactical variants in searching titles indexes are discussed.. The possibility of using keywords in journal titles as supplementary retrieval tags is suggested since they were deemed useful in nearly one-third of the sample of papers analyzed.."
430,"On Fuzzy Mapping and Control A fuzzy mapping from X to Y is a fuzzy set on X * Y.. The concept is extended to fuzzy mappings of fuzzy set on X to Y, fuzzy function and its inverse, fuzzy parametric function, fuzzy observation, and control.. Set theoretical relations are obtained for fuzzy mappings, fuzzy functions, and fuzzy parametric functions.. It is shown that under certain conditions a precise control goal can be attained with fuzzy observation and control as long as the observations become sufficiently precise when the goal is approached.."
431,Cooperation Between Types of Libraries An annotated bibliography 1969-1971 supplement This bibliography is designed to supplement capitalize Between Types of Libraries 1940-1956 An Annotated Bibliography by Ralph H. Stenstrom. The staff of the Library Research Center at the University of Illinois in cooperation with the Illinois State Library plans to issue an annual supplement which will appear in Illinois libraries each year. It is hoped the supplements issued in this manner can be cumulated periodically and issued in monograph form.
432,"Illustrative Computer Programming for Libraries Illustrative Computer Programming is intended as a graded workbook or text supplement containing typical practical problems, suggested solutions, and tried analyses which emphasize programming efficiency and some of the major features of PL/I (Programming Language/One). As such, it can be used alone or in combination with established PL/I textbooks such as those listed in the Selected Bibliography. Programmers with knowledge of other languages will not be bothered by excessive introductory material, while beginners can learn much by looking at the solutions to the problems and their accompanying analyses."
433,"Improving Access to Library Resources The motivation for this investigation derived from a series of visits to institutions which were deeply committed to the design, development, and operation of non-traditional automated information systems. At the time of the visits, the systems seemed to be working technically but, paradoxically, they did not appear to have made a significant impact on the respective user communities. Although few people associated with the systems openly expressed concern, there were non-verbal indicators which suggested that some people were becoming nervous. Since all of the systems represented high expenditures of time and money, a feeling of uneasiness seemed quite appropriate."
434,"Indexing Languages and Thesauri: Construction and Maintenance This book has two objectives. First, to reassess thoroughly the functions of an indexing language or thesaurus in a information storage and retrieval system and in the light of this reassessment to analyze the structure of indexing languages and thesauri. Most importantly, this reassessment is based on a unified view of indexing languages (classification schemes) and thesauri as information storage and retrieval systems on the other. It results in general principles that are applicable to a wide range of situations."
435,"Industrial Dynamics This book is intended for the student of management, whether he is in a formal academic program or in business. It treats the central framework underlying industrial activity. The goal is ""enterprise design"" to create more successful management policies and organizational structures."
436,"Industrial Research and Technological Innovation an Econometric Analysis After many years of neglect, technological change is receiving the attention from economists that it deserves, the 1960's being a time of a enormous interest in this area in academic, government, and business circles.. Central to the economics of technological change is the manner in which new processes and products are conceived, developed, commercialized, and accepted.. To help promote a better understanding of this process, I have been engaged for a number of years in a series of related econometric studies of industrial research and technological innovation.. The purpose of this book is to bring together the results of these studies.."
437,"Industry and Technical Progress This book is written in the belief that the full and speedy application of science in industry is necessary to economic progress, and should indeed be one of the most important objectives of national policy. This being so, it is important to identify the hindrances to speedy application. Many people have already drawn attention to particular hindrances but the three bodies which have sponsored this report did not consider that there was any up-to-date assessment of the problem which attempted to look at it as a whole, in all its variety and complexity. Hence the investigation which they undertook, and largely entrusted to us; an investigation which, through the great goodwill of many people in British industry, has yielded so much material that this book can only be a first impression and summary."
438,"Inequality; a reassessment of the effect of family and schooling in America This book summarizes the results of three years of research at the Center for Educational Policy Research. The eight coauthors were all Research Associates at the Center, and our work there was a collaborative effort. We plagiarized both ideas and data from one another. Most of us also spent a good deal of time criticizing one another's work. While each of us took primary responsibility for certain lines of inquiry, and this responsibility is recorded in appropriate footnotes, we see our research as an integrated effort which should bear all our names."
439,"Research Studies in Patterns of Scientific Communication: I. General Description of Research Program This article is the first in a series which described the general procedures and some findings of over seventy studies which we conducted from 1966 to 1971 on the information-exchange activities of over 12000 scientists and engineers in a sample of nine physical, social and engineering sciences.. We designed the studies so that (a) the full spectrum of scientific communication media could be explored, (b) the various studies were coupled in order that data obtained from one study could be directly related to those obtained from other studies, (c) the scheduling of the studies was conducted in real time in order that the same body of information could be followed from its inception to its final integration into the general body of scientific knowledge, and (d) the same studies were conducted for all nine disciplines being studied in order that genuine comparisons could be made among them.. The data are now stored on machine-readable magnetic tapes and will be made available to scholars in the field of information science.."
440,"Research Studies in Scientific Communication: IV. The Continuity of Dissemination of Information by ""Productive Scientists"" This article is the last in series which describes a set of studies which were conducted over a 4,5-year period (1966-1971).. The series of articles sought to describe a comprehensive picture of the dissemination and assimilation of scientific information as it flows through various informal and formal media, from the time a scientist initiates his work until it is published.. The present article examines the continuity of scientific work and information exchange by ""productive scientists"" two years after the publication of their articles in 1968/1969.. The results indicate that about half of the authors had changed to a subject-matter area which differed from that of their earlier articles, however, such shifts did not decrease authors' productivity nor greatly increase their information needs.."
441,"Inference and Disputed Authorship We apply a 200-year-old mathematical theorem to a 175-year-old historical problem, more to advance statistics than history. Though problems of disputed authorship are common in history, literature, and politics, scholars regard their solutions as minor advances. For us the question of whether Hamilton or Madison wrote the disputed Federalist papers has served as a laboratory and demonstration problem for developing and comparing statistical methods. While we help solve this historical problem, our practical application of Bayes' theorem to a large analysis of data is a step in testing the feasibility of a method being explored with fresh attitudes and fresh mathematics. Furthermore, large practical applications have until now been few, and our work helps fill that gap."
442,"Storage Analysis of a Compression Coding for Document Data Bases Analysis is made of the effect of using an efficient code of compression of terms within a document data base.. The storage efficiency is expressed in terms of the vocabulary length and the values of certain parameters which describe the structure of the code.. For vocabularies of up to 100,000 terms the average code length is approximately twelve bits.. No information is lost through term truncation or abbreviation.. The tables required for coding and decoding may be ordered for rapid access without reduction in the ease of update.."
443,"Quantitative Fuzzy Semantics The point of departure in this paper is the definition of a language, L, as a fuzzy relation from a set of terms, T = {x}, to a universe of discourse, U = {y}.. As a fuzzy relation, L is characterized by its membership function mL:T*U -> [0,1], which associates with each ordered pair (x,y) its grade of membership, mL(x,y), in L..   Given a particular x in T, the membership function mL(x,y) defines a fuzzy set, M(x), in U whose membership function is given by mM(x)(y) = mL(X,y).. The fuzzy set M(x) is defined to be the meaning of the term x, with x playing the role of a name for M(x)..  If a term x in T is a concatenation of other terms in T, that is, x = x1 ... xn, xi T, i epsilon 1,...,n, then the meaning of x can be expressed in terms of the meanings of x1,...,xn through the use of a lambda-expression or by solving a system of equations in the membership functions of the xi which are deduced from the syntax tree of x.. The use of this approach is illustrated by examples.."
444,"On Relevance as a Measure Relevance is defined as a measure of information conveyed by a document relative to a query.. It is shown that the relationship between the document and the query, though necessary, is not sufficient to determine relevance.."
445,"A Definition of Relevance for Information Retrieval The concept of ""relevance"", sometimes also called ""pertinence"" or ""aboutness"", is central to the theory of information retrieval.. Unfortunately, however, there is at present no consensus as to how this notion should be defined.. The purpose of this paper is to propose and defend a definition of what it means to say that a piece of stored information is ""relevant"" to the information need of a retrieval system user..  The suggested definition explicates relevance in terms of logical implication.. For one yes-or-no question answering system which operates with one of the standard formalized languages, the definition provides a mathematically precise criterion of relevance.. For other types of fact retrieval systems and reference retrieval systems, including all systems whose stored information is expressed in natural language, the definition is not  mathematically precise but is nevertheless still helpful on a conceptual level.."
446,"Computer Assisted Indexing The paper describes a technique which enables an on line computer based information retrieval system to aid the indexers by selecting possible index terms to be assigned to a new document entering the system..  The method analyses the index terms assigned to the references cited by the new article.. This produces a list of index terms weighted according to their expected correlation with the subject matter of the new article.. Thus, the indexer is presented with the weighted list of proposed indexing terms as an aid..  An evaluation is made of the results produced by the technique for a trial set of documents.. These documents have already been indexed for the MEDLARS system.. The list of actual index terms for this trial set of documents is compared with the set of index terms proposed by the technique for each document.. The results of this comparison are encouraging, and they are discussed in the paper..  The economic aspects of implementing the technique in a working information retrieval system is considered.. This included the expected benefits, and an estimate of the cost of using the technique as an aid in terms of computer time and indexer time.."
447,"A Note on the Concept of ""Relevance"" Two recent articles in this journal (Konigova [1], Cooper [2]) have gone beyond the usual slapdash use of the words ""relevant"" and ""relevance,"" and have attempted to explicate the concept further. Both attempts only partially succeed. Konigova proposes three types: formal relevance, subject/content relevance and subjective relevance (or pertinency). This classification has validity, but is not further elaborated, and indeed she reverts to a less precise language; for example, in defining ""second order noise,"" she uses the ambiguous phrase ""a formally relevant document which is not really relevant"" - presumably meaning not subjectively relevant, according to the real need of the enquirer. And in her mathematics, as she admits, ""no account is taken of the subjective relevance (pertinence)."" Yet this is surely the true aim of the system."
448,"An Evaluation of Query Expansion by the Addition of Clustered Terms   for a Document Retrieval System An evaluation of graph theoretical clusters of index terms which can be extracted from an automatically indexed document collection, and the effects of employing such cluster in automatic document retrieval is described.. The graph theoretical cluster which were developed from six data base under two different cluster definition were analyzed for average size and related data.. The clusters were also used to expand the queries in each of six data bases to determine the effect of the expansions on the document retrieval results..  Although a large variety of clusters and associated query explanations were obtained, no significant improvements in the document retrieval performance were achieved.. In some cases, however, significant degradations in the retrieval performance occurred.. Although seemingly meaningful clusters can be obtained, the results indicate that the effort involved in finding clusters and adding the clustered terms to queries is far to great to warrant their use in an operational system.. The data bases employed were relatively small, and the authors caution against generalizing these results to large data bases or other situations.."
449,"Situational Relevance The concept of situational relevance is introduced, based on W.S.Cooper's definitions of logical relevance, on the notion of evidential relevance drawn from inductive logic, on the notions of a personal stock of knowledge and a set of personal concerns, the latter explained in terms of preferences over ranges of alternatives.. Situationally relevant items of information are those that answer, or logically help to answer, questions of concern.. Significant situationally relevant information is explained in terms of changes of view in relation to questions of concern.. It is claimed that situational relevance is an explication of the ordinary notion of practical relevance, and that it is the appropriate relevance concept to use in evaluation of systems supplying practically relevant information.."
450,Selection of Equifrequent Word Fragments for Information Retrieval The design of programs to research large document data bases is discussed with regard to the use of compression coding combined with adoption of word fragments as the basic language elements.. An algorithm is described for determination of a set of almost equifrequent fragments.. Its efficiency is tested for a sample data base formed from the MARC tapes.. A certain threshold frequency acts as a parameter whose value determines the number of distinct fragments.. The selection algorithm is designed to give some preference to choice of the longest fragments and hence allow compact coding of the data base by concatenation of non-overlapping fragments..
451,"Interaction Between Requesters and a Large Mechanized retrieval System In a large mechanized retrieval system, a certain proportion of the search failures are likely to be directly attributable to inadequate user-system interaction.. Request statements may be only distant approximations of actual information requirements.. This paper discusses some of the problems of the user-system interface and suggests methods whereby these problems may be alleviated.."
452,"The U.S. National Library of Medicine and International MEDLARS Cooperation The U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM) initiated its computer-based bibliographic information storage and retrieval system, MEDLARS, in 1964.. Currently, The NLM has eight international MEDLARS quid-pro-quo arrangements with the United Kingdom, Sweden, France, West Germany, Japan, Australia, Canada and the World Health Organization.. The policy aspects of the arrangements are discussed as well as the organizational and operational characteristics of these non-U.S. MEDLARS Centers.."
453,"Information in 1985; a forecasting study of information needs and resources The primary purpose of this study is to estimate the supply of, and above all the demand for, scientific and technical information; its secondary objective is to make a long-term assessment of qualitative and quantitative requirements for information specialists. In both instances, of course, future technical developments, as far as they can be foreseen, must be taken into account.   At the same time, like most work sponsored by the OECD, its aim is to identify significant criteria for defining a policy - in this case an information policy, which is greatly needed in all OECD countries."
454,"Information Analysis and Retrieval Therefore the purpose of this book remains the same as that of Textbook on Mechanized Information Retrieval - to teach basics to those who have had no previous exposure either to the field or to computers, or both. Therefore, the action is slowed to the point where the logical principles of information retrieval systems are laid bare. Other books have been published that emphasize computer programming - this one does not."
455,"Fuzzy Sets A fuzzy set is a class of objects with a continuum of grades of membership.. Such a set is characterized by a membership (characteristic) function which assigns to each object a grade of membership ranging between zero and one.. The notions of inclusion, union, intersection, complement, relation, convexity, etc., are extended to such sets, and various properties of these notions in the context of fuzzy sets are established.. In particular, a separation theorem for convex fuzzy sets is proved without requiring that the fuzzy sets be disjoint.."
456,"Information and Its User In science and technology user studies are numerous and have a history of some twenty years. The relevance of the methodology of science user studies to the social sciences is considered in Chapter 2. The pressing need in user studies, in science as well as social science, is for a general body of theory about the flow of information in research and teaching communities. Some of the fundamental characteristics of social science research and its literature which have a bearing upon investigations of information needs and requirements are considered in the first part of Chapter 3, and the second part is devoted to a review of empirical studies in the social sciences. Other relevant material about the use made of information is discussed in Chapter 4 on systematic approaches."
457,"Information, Mechanism, and Meaning In a day when it is hard enough in most fields of science to keep abreast of new and non-redundant literature, the publication of collected papers, like the estate of holy matrimony, is something not to be undertaken 'unadvisedly, lightly or wantonly'. In the present case it would not have been considered at all but for the kindly initiative of my respected friend Professor Roman Jakobson, whose persistent encouragement alone overcame that distaste which most of us feel for our ten- to twenty-year-old productions and brought this first volume to the point of no return. It is true that these exploratory papers were scattered among an unconscionably awkward selection of publications for anyone wanting to follow them up. On the other hand, as most of them were written for specific occasions, each of which demanded some rehearsal of points covered in earlier essays, the resulting repetitiveness presented a special problem. With occasional exceptions, redundancy could have been eliminated only at the cost of mutilating individual papers. The solution adopted has been to leave almost all repetitive passages intact, offsetting in small print those that can be skipped without loss by readers of the earlier chapters. Where some comment has seemed necessary, by way of foreword or postscript to the original papers, the passages added have been italicized."
458,"Information Retrieval Systems This book is concerned primarily with those ""intellectual"" factors that significantly affect the performance of all information retrieval systems; namely,     - indexing policy and practice     - vocabulary control     - searching strategies     - interaction between the system and its users  My viewpoint is that of the evaluator of information systems. I have therefore paid considerable attention to a discussion of the requirements of users of information systems and the measurement of system performance in terms of the efficient and economical satisfaction of these requirements.  The book does not concern itself, except indirectly, with equipment for the implementation of retrieval systems, a topic that is adequately covered by other volumes in this seris. Moreover, it is my contention that the importance of ""hardware"" and ""data processing"" aspects of information systems has been exaggerated in the United States, with some detriment to the performance of many systems."
459,"Information Retrieval On-Line This book deals with on-line systems for bibliographic search and retrieval. The literature on this subject is increasing rapidly and new systems are appearing all the time. We have attempted to provide a broad survey of the characteristics, capabilities, and limitations of present systems. Our emphasis is on the design, evaluation, and use of on-line retrieval systems, primarily from the viewpoint of the planner and manager of information services. It is oriented toward the ""intellectual"" aspects of information retrieval rather than the hardware or programming aspects. We hope that this book may have some value for all students of library and information science."
460,"Information Retrieval and Documentation in Chemistry For several years we have thought that greater effort should be expended to create more understanding of the processes involved in information storage, retrieval, and dissemination. Too often, concepts deriving from science and technology are made to seem unnecessarily abstruse, either inadvertently or deliberately to preserve some sort of mystique. This book is intended to explicate, if not popularize, major aspects of I S & R processes as they are exemplified by the field of chemical documentation. To the extent that this work is found useful by chemists, information specialists, and all individuals interested in scientific documentation, we shall be gratified."
461,"Information Retrieval and Processing The present book embodies a change in structure and focus to reflect the fact that the reader of today's book is much more likely to be an interested college student with a great awareness of the current information revolution than was the case ten years ago. Thus, hardware, materials, and processes used in connection with information systems are discussed first, in Chapters Two through Four. The subject of information retrieval per se begins with Chapters Five and Six, which have to do with librarianship and documentation. Because of their somewhat historical slant, these chapters (along with Seven) are the only ones taken from the 1963 book which adhere to their original character. Chapter Seven presents a simplified concept of an information system and its components, and paves the way for discussion of computerized retrieval in the chapters to follow, especially for data retrieval in Chapter Eight and document retrieval in Chapter Nine. Chapters Ten through Twelve, on language processing, evaluation, and user studies, describe important facets of the information retrieval field that have developed strongly since 1963."
462,"Information Retrieval The material of this book is aimed at advanced undergraduate information (or computer) science students, postgraduate library science students, and research workers in the field of IR. Some of the chapters, particularly Chapter 6, make simple use of a little advanced mathematics. However, the necessary mathematical tools can be easily mastered from numerous mathematical texts that now exist and in any case references have been given where the mathematics occur."
463,"Information Retrieval; British and American, 1876-1976 Of eight chapters this first one deals with principles and definitions and then with the slow development of information retrieval through about 5,000 years until the introduction of printing in Europe less than 500 years prior to our period of principal coverage, 1876-1976. This latter period coincides with the second century of the United States of America, during which were intensified earlier efforts to carry out one of Washington's urgings in his Farewell Address: ""Promote then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge."""
464,"Similarity Relations and Fuzzy Orderings The notion of ""similarity"" as defined in this paper is essentially a generalization of the notion of equivalence.. In the same vein, a fuzzy ordering is a generalization of the concept of ordering.. For example, the relation x >> y is a fuzzy linear ordering in the set of real numbers..  More correctly, a similarity relation, S is a fuzzy relation which is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive..  Various properties of similarity relations and fuzzy ordering are investigated and, as an illustration, an extended version of Szpilrajn's theorem is proved.."
465,"Using Commercially Available Literature Tapes  for a Current Awareness Service The paper reviews the need for current awareness services and describes the basic characteristics of SDI, indicating its advantages.. Details are given of the problems that have arisen in providing an SDI service based on Chemical Titles tapes at Aldermaston with particular reference to program limitations.. Data on operating costs and on use assessments of the service are given.. The pros and cons of title-only alerting systems are discussed.."
466,"The University of Sheffield Biomedical Information Project An outline is given of the history of the Project and the development, with OSTI support, of an information service in intestinal absorption which is intended to become self-supporting.. Results of an evaluation of computer-based current awareness techniques including journal scanning is discussed with reference to cost, completeness and minimum delay.. A simple technique is suggested for profile construction e.g. for Chemical Titles computer search, based on frequency and specificity of words in a sample of relevant titles.."
467,"Exploitation of Literature on Tape Experience of the use of a number of commercially available magnetic tapes for a current awareness service is described.. Difficulties encountered in the assimilation of various types of tape format into the system developed for the Unilever Research Laboratory are discussed, and problems in the retrospective searching of tapes are outlined.."
468,"Analysis of On-line Searching Costs A project was undertaken to discover the major determinants of the costs of searching, on-line, on a practical reference retrieval system (SCISEARCH).. The methodology and some results of this project are reported.. Controlled searches were undertaken to isolate the effect of each of a number of variables.. A model involving several of the major variables was then developed.. The general approach proved to be (in this case) both feasible and useful.."
469,"The Phenomena of Interest to Information Science Discusses the various explicit and implicit definitions of information and information science, against a view of their historical development.. Shows how the various views of information science overlap with other disciplines, and concludes with a proposal for a definition of information science based on social need.. A schema of information sciences is put forward with the plea that any discussion of information and information science should first declare the definitions to be used.."
470,"Information Service in Libraries The two studies presented here represent efforts to measure the performance of library staffs in an unobstrusive fashion: that is, to apply certain tests generally similar to portions of the normal workload without drawing attention to the fact that a test is being carried out. The two projects were rather different as to purpose, method, and reliability of result (that is, statistical significance). Dr. Crowley's investigation, the first in point of time, arose partly from his experience in a county library. His curiousity about the real result of the reference activities (as different from merely counting the questions answered) led him to ask, ""Is there substantial difference between the claims made by librarians for reference work and the actual result as observed in a number of different situations by individuals posing as clients?"" The study which followed from this question was, then, exploratory and necessarily less rigidly controlled than was the second study of this pair."
471,"Information Storage and Retrieval: tools, elements, theories This textbook grew out of some discussions between the authors about the interdisciplinary character of the field of information storage and retrieval. We both felt that the need existed to show what each professional group concerned with the solution of information storage and retrieval problems could contribute. A university-level course was developed, based on the concept that each person should be made aware of how others could help him. The course was presented about a dozen times over the ensuing years, and this book is based on it."
472,"Information Storage and Retrieval Systems for Individual Researchers This book deals with the simplest of the three corrective measures - the improvement of the document retrieval system. There are different ways and means of accomplishing this, and these methods of improving the organization and retrieval of personal document collections are the principal topics to be covered. The book is addressed primarily to the researcher in any subject field who desires to improve the index to his document collection or start an index to his document collection but does not quite know how to go about it. An index is herein defined as a systematic organization of a collection of documents or data. There are indexes to various types of document and data collections, and there are various types of indexes. Examples of familiar indexes are indexes to individual books, to collections of books (the card catalog in a library), to the contents of journals or periodicals (for example, the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature), to collections of facts (for example, a telephone directory), or to numeric data (such as physical constants of a group of compounds or numeric data collected in a questionnaire study)."
473,"Bibliographic Coupling Extended in Time: Ten Case Histories The methods of bibliographic coupling were applied to 8186 papers in thirty- five volumes of the Physical Review (Vol. 77, 1950 to Vol. 111, 1958).. The results are reported in the form of ten case histories.. Each case was chosen to illustrate a problem in information retrieval.."
474,"A Methodology for Test and Evaluation of Information Retrieval Systems A recognition of the importance of useful evaluative techniques is an indirect or secondary result of the hugely expanded national investment in scientific research. Such recognition has followed the expenditure of much time and money on the development of information systems which utilize advances in information handling and data processing (primarily computer-oriented) to handle the ""explosion"" of recorded information. Information scientists from a typically diverse group of parent disciplines are now cooperating not only to develop methodologies of evaluation of such systems, but to apply them."
475,"Factors Affecting the Preferences of Industrial Personnel for Information  Gathering Methods A structured questionnaire was administered to professional personnel in industrial and government organizations, asking the subjects to rank eight information gathering methods according to their preference in given hypothetical situation.. The subjects were then asked to rate the methods on a seven point scale according to (a) ease of use and (b) amount of information expected.. The subjects were divided into two groups determined by their time spent in research or research related activities.. The groups were designated ""research"" and ""nonresearch""..  A statistical analysis of the data from 96 subjects (52 in research, 44 in nonresearch) showed that no statistically significant differences were present in either the rankings or ratings between research and nonresearch personnel..   The results of the study infer that the ease of use of an information gathering method is more important than the amount of information expected for information gathering methods in industrial and government, regardless of the research orientation of the users.."
476,"On the Articulation of Surrogates: An Attempt at an Epistemological Foundation There are two major purposes, in mind, for this gathering. The first is the most general that can be proposed for any gathering: the simple advantage of bringing together those who have been at work on a single problem or at least a small class of problems - especially when this problem has not previously benefited from exclusive and thematic collaboration among its investigators. To further such thematic collaboration, the formal presentations have been scheduled no more than three each day, with time left after each presentation for (formal) discussion here in the conference room, and with as much time as possible - given the number of presentations - left free for informal discussion.  The second purpose is one of even greater necessity, in my opinion, though one not so obvious as the first. Over and above the hope for interchange of what has already been thought out - in the form of personal contact, where the presence of the originator of the system or theory can reinforce the printed word in its usual and ineffable way - it is my hope that we will all be able (especially in our informal discussions) to penetrate beyond mere similarity and difference to the underlying philosophical bases of syntactic relationship."
477,"Some Remarks on Information Languages, Their Analysis and Comparison ""The machine language [information language in our terminology D.S.] should not be confused with the machine code: (Upenskii, 59:357). In Ranganathan's more general terms: There should be no confusion between the idea plane and the notational plane. Many difficulties in classification arise from this confusion. This paper is devoted mainly to problems on the idea plane.   ""The IR-language I want to talk about, is the language in which the information to be retrieved is formulated, i.e. a declarative sentence language, not the imperative sentence language of the programmer-retriever"" (Bohnert in Samet, 62.1:10), that is, the information language should not be confused with the programming language. (To avoid misunderstandings it would perhaps be better to say ""descriptive"" instead of ""declarative"" and to state explicitly that in a descriptive sentence an imperative may be described which is, however, not to be executed by the system but to be retrieved by appropriate searches.)"
478,"Concept Organization for Information Retrieval All analysis of information for storage and of questions for effecting retrieval must be in terms of concepts and the relations between them. The concepts may be just words (descriptors), as in simple post-co-ordinate keyword indexing systems, or they may be class-terms or other idea-groupings, as in classifications. The relations between concepts often appear to be absent, but if more than one word is used in indexing or in a search there is clearly an implicit relation between them in the mind of the indexer or questioner, and other relations possible between the words would lead to false drops. Classification has traditionally been a method of organization of concepts in which the relations between concepts are ostensibly displayed in the form of groupings called classes."
479,"Automatic Term Classifications and Retrieval Recent research at the Cambridge Language Research Unit has been concerned with the application of the automatic classification techniques associated with the ""theory of clumps"" to document description obtained from the Aslib-Cranfield project, and with the use of the resulting term classifications in retrieval.. A substantial program engine has been developed which computes similarities between pairs of terms on the basis of their occurrences and co-occurrences in document descriptions, and finds classes of terms with strong similarity connections by minimizing the cohesion between a potential clump and its complement; and which retrieves using single terms and/or term classes according to specification, and calculates recall and precision ratios for sets of requests.. Serious tests with different similarity and clump definitions and with different modes of using term classes are still in progress, so on definite conclusions about the value of this kind of classification are presented.."
480,"Some Structural Characteristics of Articulated Subject Indexes An articulated subject index is one in which logical transformations of natural language phrases containing prepositions or connectives are employed to organize the noun phrases as subject headings, with subordinate displays of the remainder of the phrases.. The best-known example of the articulated subject index is that to Chemical Abstracts..  It has been shown that a well-defined transformation links the entry, as it appears in the index, with the original phrase, in natural order, as it was first compiled by the indexer.. A reverse transformation can be used to generate potential index entries from indexing phrases containing one or more prepositions or connectives..  A simple model has been devised for the generation of articulated subject index entries from natural language indexing phrases which exclude infinitives or words acting as gerunds or participles.. A sorting algorithm has also been developed, the purpose of which is to select those entries which lead to greatest organization in the index display..  Deviations from the model in manually-produced indexes are described.. The potential value of certain of these characteristics in information retrieval is examined.."
481,"Integrated Information Processing and the Case for a National Network The various premises, which need consideration when developing a realistic and flexible information storage, retrieval and dissemination (ISRD) system, are discussed; their implication is illustrated with some examples from the development of the system at ""Shell"" Research, Sittingbourne..  One of the factors which will affect the satisfactory performance of an ISRD system is the ease with which relevant literature information not held in the system can be provided..  The later part of the paper is developed to a discussion of this problem and of a possible means of dealing with it in the not too distant future.."
482,"Some Experiments in the Selective Dissemination of Information  in the Field of Plasma Physics A small-scale, computer-based SDI system in plasma physics and the related subjects is described briefly.. The system serves about 100 research scientists and engineers and uses title input only in order to minimize input costs.. The implications of this approach and its effect upon the system parameters is discussed.. Some comparison of the costs of the computer-based system with those of a manual system is made..  Further experiments are described in which the service is expanded to external users on a world-wide basis, the aim being to compare, under controlled conditions, the parameters of the small-scale internal service with those of an external service on a wide scale..  The paper concludes with some observations on the future development and organization of computer-assisted services, their possibilities and the main problems which are likely to arise.."
483,"Performance of Automatic Information Systems The SMART document retrieval system is used to investigate algorithms for text analysis and request searching.. Results from three document collections indicate that word normalization is efficiently performed by automatic thesaurus lookup, while phrase matching procedures, statistical association methods, and concept hierarchies are useful for special applications.. Automatic document clustering schemes and use-interactive feedback methods permit rapid searches of large collections.. Abstracts are found to be superior to titles as a base for content analysis in a document retrieval system and almost as good as complete texts.. Proper procedures for designing dictionaries and searching requests are discussed..The practicality of large scale document centers and their proper design are considered in light of these results.."
484,"Negotiation of Inquiries in an On-Line Retrieval System The focus of discussion is a prototype retrieval system with three major components for text processing, connectivity and decision operations.. Each of these components is based on a distinguishable subtheory..  Computer programs for the first two components have been written for a GE 225 computer.. The complete prototype system is now being programmed for operation in a time-shared environment.. It is a user-oriented system, with planned capabilities for the browsing and man-machine interaction.. A major goal is to develop procedures whereby research workers can conduct an on-line dialog via terminals with a body of scientific information.. Each user-submitted inquiry is a set of sentences without restriction as to vocabulary or form.. The system converses with the user to obtain source-derived phrases that elaborate and refine the initial inquiry.. The use is led to browse in the general area of his inquiry and to broaden or narrow it as a further aid to request formulation..  Evaluation of system performance is described.."
485,"A Clustering Experiment:  First Step Towards a Computer-Generated Classification Scheme A document collection consisting of 240 articles on theoretical high energy physics is analyzed by an empirical clustering procedure, in which bibliographic coupling, obtained by computer, is used to measure the relatedness of articles.. Meaningful groups of documents were produced.. The clustering process ia adapted to future use in the computer-generation of a classification scheme.."
486,"Relevance Assessments and Retrieval System Evaluation Two widely used criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of information retrieval system are, respectively, the recall and the precision.. Since the determination of these measures is dependent on a distinction between documents which are relevant to a given query and documents which are not relevant to that query, it has sometimes been claimed that an accurate, generally valid evaluation cannot be based on recall and precision measures..  A study was made to determine that effect of variations in relevance assessments on the average recall and precision values used to measure retrieval effectiveness.. Using a collection of 1200 documents in information science for test purposes, it is found that large scale differences in the relevance assessments do not produce significant variations in average recall and precision.. It thus appears that properly computed recall and precision data may represent effectiveness indicators which are generally valid for many distinct user classes.."
487,"An Indirect Method of Information Retrieval The information retrieval process, treated strictly as a matching procedure, has the defects that tha whole file must be probed for each query, and that it overlooks the fact that the relevance of the information from one document depends upon what is already known about the subject, and in term affects the relevance of other documents subsequently examined.. A mathematical model of a search technique in which the defects of the direct method are taken into account is demonstrated by an experiment in which a given paper is treated as an enquiry and the references cited in the paper are treated as relevant answers.. The results in two tests show much better results than those achieved by the direct method.. No spurious material was retrieved by either method.."
488,"The Use of Automatically-Obtained Keyword Classifications   for Information Retrieval This report summarizes the work carried out on the automatic construction of keyword classifications and their use in information retrieval that we have carried out in the last eighteen months.. It discusses the possible characteristics of such classifications, and potential ways of using them; and described the various approaches to classification we have considered, in terms of an overall frame of reference in which several types of classification are distinguished.. The results of experiments using a collection of documents and test requests obtained from the Aslib Clanfield project are presented, from which it can be conclude that automatic classifications which lead to noticeable improvements in retrieval performance over those obtainable with unclassified terms can be set up.."
489,"Experiments in Book Indexing by Computer The most challenging task in preparing an index to a book is to select all and only those terms that are related to the text and are useful for relevance purposes.. While a knowledgeable human can make the selection on an intuitive basis, automatic indexing requires a precise operational criterion for defining and selecting good and useful index terms.. Two principles of selection are proposed:specification and selection of useful terms, and specification and exclusion of useless terms.. Because of the nebulous nature and meaning of ""good index terms"", and the difficulties involved in devising machine algorithms for their selection, this research in automatic indexing is based on the principle of excluding useless terms.. Even so,fully automatic indexing was not achieved in this study.. Single words proved to be little value as index terms.. Multiple word terms were generated by the computer, but no algorithm could successfully eliminate the useless phrases.. Final selection had to be made by the experimenter.. A comprehensive and useful book index was achieved by using machine-aided rather than fully automated indexing techniques.."
490,"Computer Use in Information and Data Handling:  an Appraisal of Its Economic Aspects The economic merits of applying computers in information storage, retrieval and dissemination have usually been considered with respect only to the cost of operating the information services concerned.. This had tended to indicate that computer use is economically justified mainly for housekeeping operations in the large scale organizations..  The present paper takes a wider view and included in its appraisal the costs involved in information gathering and dissemination for the total system representing the information services and its users.. It is suggested that the inclusion of cost elements associated with user time devoted to information gathering tends to shift the economic appraisal in favor of computer application in information work..  In fact, such computer use appears to find its main stimulus and economic justification  in an environment that provides strong incentives to minimize the total cost of the system whilst maximizing its benefits to the users..  To illustrate this some example are given based on experience gained in research data handling and the operation of SDI services in an industrial research establishment.."
491,"The Unilever Research SDI System The Research SDI System has now been in operation for one year using the ISI Source Tapes as a data base.. Tapes are received weekly from ISI, Philadelphia and are run against approximately 20,000 search terms representing about 350 profiles.. The Computer System and search programs will be described together with costs for the operation.. User reaction will be commented upon within the context of future developments of SDI.."
492,"Performance and Cost of ""Free-Text"" Search systems The purpose of an information-retrieval system is to provide the user with citations relevant to his query. Since the user is the only person competent to make the final judgement of relevance it is natural to suppose that the selection of items from a data base will lead to two kinds of retrieval error. The extent of these errors is expressed by the familiar measures of performance, precision and recall. Precision measures the failure of the system to retrieve only relevant documents while recall measures its failure to retrieve all relevant documents actually present in the data base. It is difficult to visualize a situation in which a user would find advantage in being provided with irrelevant citations. From the user's point of view, therefore, a system which offers less than 100 per cent precision is a deficient system."
493,"Experimental Use of a Program for Computer-Aided Subject-Index Production Stages in the development of a program for the production of articulated subject indexes are described.. The preparation of an index to the third edition of the SMRE Bibliography has enabled the technique to be assessed in a practical situation.. Titles from 1700 documents included in the bibliography were edited to provide input to the program, and the output recorded on a micro-film/hard-copy recorder in upper case alone..  Further developments now in hand are indicated and criteria for assessing the suitability of the technique relative to other index-production techniques are discussed.."
494,The Design of Cost-Effective Hierarchical Information Systems The provision of periodicals and bibliographic aids for the three levels of the hierarchy is considered.. Viability analysis establishes minimum operating scales and Bradford-Zipf analysis optimizes the selection..
495,"Optimum Procedures for Economic Information Retrieval Computer searches on Chemical Titles tapes for current awareness at the University of Alberta since May, 1968, have provided sufficient data to allow formulation of a cost function based on the number of titles searched, the length of questions, the extent to which questions may be batched, and certain details regarding the allowed forms of question.. With different choice of parameters the cost function could be adapted to apply to searches of other data bases..  An attempt to make retrospective searching economically feasible has led to formulation of different search techniques.. It is suggested that the search procedure should be designed to minimize computation time at the expense of convenience in the form of output, but that facilities should be included so that the user who is willing to play the additional cost may receive output in a more convenient form..  In recognition of the fact that the form of search question should be dependent on the vocabulary of the data base, a program has been developed to modify a question so that it is optimal for searches on the given data base.."
496,"The Cost and Costing of Information Storage and Retrieval This presentation on economic aspects of information retrieval is based on data gathered by Project URBANDOC during the course of four years in developing documentation services for the literature of urban planning and renewal. It was a substantial effort - half a million dollars is no small sum in the social sciences - made possible by an Urban Renewal Demonstration Grant from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to The City University of New York. The proposal that initiated the Project in 1965 grew out of the extensive dissatisfaction with bibliographic services in planning librarianship at a time when both planners and librarians were looking to data processing to solve a variety of information problems. URBANDOC was to apply the techniques of scientific documentation to a body of literature which had been neglected by the information science community before the advent of computerization, and completely by-passed by it afterwards."
497,"Some Cost Estimates for Bibliographical Searching in a Large-Scale Social Sciences Information System Many of the large-scale mechanized information systems in operation today grew up because of the need of the military and para-military establishments to have rapid access to large quantities of scientific and technological information. This paper will deal with two complementary efforts in the field of social sciences, where an awareness of the information problem is acute, and the global needs staggering. The target audiences for these two systems are on the one hand social science researchers and on the other policy planners and makers in the broad field of economic and social development.  An operational system (in the International Labour Office) will be described, and an array of figures representing actual or theoretical operating costs will be given. As could be expected, however, these figures relate only to costs of systems development, input preparation, file maintenance and retrieval. No attempt can be made to evaluate in other than general terms the economic impact that the existence of such a system may have. It can be readily demonstrated, however, that computer-assisted information systems may make sense within individual institutional environments, and make greater sense when on-line systems linking various collaborating institutions can result in enabling each to operate more efficiently and at lower cost. The existence of such on-line networks would make the greatest sense for users because of the possibility of having access at a reasonable price to large information stores."
498,"Mechanized Searching of Acts of Parliament This paper reports the results of a practical study of the application of digital computers to the storage, analysis and retrieval of the full text of Acts of Parliament and associated delegated legislation dealing with automatic energy, a total of some 140,000 words.. A suite of computer programs has been prepared in a high-level language for generating a dictionary and concordance to the full text and organizing the search process.. The interrogation language QUEST is described and its application to full text searching discussed.."
499,"Experiments in Automatic Extracting and Indexing This article reports on several experiments in automatic extracting and one experiment in automating indexing.. Nine chapters, each from a different technical book, were used as a text corpus for all the experiments.. In the first experiment, an attempt was made to construct a sentence dictionary of syntactic sentence types, for distinguishing extract-worthy sentences, but it proved unrewarding.. Nevertheless, the results indicated that sentence typing might be used in a screening process in conjunction with other extracting techniques.. The later attempts to combine synactic and statistical criteria in the choice of extract sentences and index phrases proved more rewarding.. The sentences selected by the extracting algorithm were representative and are presented for the reader to peruse.. The noun phrases selected by the indexing algorithm compared favorably with the back-of-the-book index phrases.. There is every indication that satisfactory back-of-the-book indexes could be produced automatically, with post-editing to delete superfluous items.."
500,"Cost-Effectiveness as a Guide in Developing Indexing Rules To date, the many decisions among alternatives that are required in the course of developmental efforts to improve indexing have, with few exceptions, been guided primarily by criteria related to effectiveness, as measured by some objective method, or as judged subjectively.. Although effectiveness-type criteria may be adequate for work intended solely to advance the state-of-the-art, when the goal is to develop indexing techniques appropriate for operating services, it seems highly desirable to employ some criterion that takes cost as well as effectiveness into consideration.. The central problem of operating services can be reduced to either that of producing the best indexing possible at a given cost, or that of producing indexing of a given level of effectiveness at least cost.. In our current effort to develop rules for human, machine, and man-machine indexing, we employ a cost-effectiveness type of criterion in making the critical developmental decision.. The general approach is described and illustrated with examples of how measures of cost and of effectiveness were considered jointly in decision making, primarily for how to reduce cost of indexing at a given level of effectiveness.. Problems of defining cost are also discussed, such as how to divide indexing into discrete steps, the effects of long-term vs. short-term activity in humans and small-batch vs. large-batch considerations for machines.."
501,Compilation of Thesauri for Use in Computer Systems A thesaurus can be defined as a structured vocabulary for use in information storage and retrieval systems.  Three parts of this definition need further elaboration:  1. A vocabulary is a collection of terms.  2. The structure of a vocabulary can be described as a set of relationships   between terms.  3. Utilization of a thesaurus in an information system involves a set of   rules which take into account the characteristics of the system.
502,"Information-Seeking Behavior of Catalog Users This study is based on the data from a survey of catalog use at three university libraries and one public library.. Both ""known-item"" searches and ""subject"" searches were analyzed.. The characteristics of the user population were examined and methodological problems of the survey were discussed.. A relation was found between the academic rank of the catalog users and type of search that they carry out.. Some of the factors influencing the success or failure of the search were analyzed, and the meaning of ""success"" for the two types of search was discussed.. The study investigated tends in search strategies as well as degree of perseverance of catalog searchers..Implications for the design of modern information retrieval systems were pointed out.."
503,"Automatic Classification and Retrieval of Documents by Means  of a Bibliographic Pattern Discovery Algorithm We present completely automatic procedures for the self-generation of meaningful groups among the members of a document collection and for the classification according to these groups of subsequent documents.. These procedures operate on large document collections with reasonably short computation times.. Thus far, in our experiments on the physics literature, automatic classification has proven to be as good as or better than manual indexing and, in addition, potentially less expensive.. Empirically derived, our method is based upon a pattern discovery algorithm which use only the citation content of a document and with operates on the bibliographic links among papers.. The self-generated groups correspond to very specific subject headings; retrospective bibliographies generated in the procedures allow one to classify the subsequent literature with remarkably high recall and relevance ratios, close to 100%.."
504,"Columbia University School of Library Service System  for Thesaurus Development and Maintenance A system for computer-based thesaurus production and maintenance has been developed at Columbia University School of Library Service.. The system is highly flexible, providing for all the types of data elements which have been used in both thesauri and subject heading lists, with additional features found to be useful as a result of the ongoing research program at Columbia.. Three thesauri in widely varying subject fields are in the final stages of production under the system.. As a result of the simultaneous development of the thesauri (based on actual indexing universes) and of the production system, which is part of a larger program of research in information handling problems, a variety of new techniques and procedures have been developed as their usefulness became evident.."
505,"Five Years, Five Volumes and 2345 Pages  of the Annual Review of Information Science and Technology The Annual Review of Information Science and Technology (ARIST) is now 5 years old.. In these 5 years ARIST became not only a very much used and quoted tool, but also an established institution.. This is testified by the fact that each of the five volumes was the year's most frequently and most comprehensively reviewed book in the field.. The ARIST effort is unparalleled in great many fields..  Currently we are entering an era of intense concern about and reactions to science and technology.. All sciences and technologies are subject to questioning, scrutiny and evaluation both inside and outside of their subject areas..  Scrutiny of a field may be attempted by a scrutiny of its important literature items.. With 5 years and five volumes ARIST invites and affords a perspective.. This review is attempting in broad brushstrokes to be a critical examination of the underlying structure, and literature base as well as the achievements of the ARIST effort as a whole.."
506,"A Technique for the Evaluation of a Commercial Information Service and Some Preliminary Results from the Drugdoc Service of the Excerpta Medica Foundation The selectivity, timeliness and quality of indexing of a commercial service may be assessed by comparing the journal articles chosen by an organization as relevant to its interests, with those subsequently reported by the service.. These aspects were evaluated with respect to Drugdoc which scans over 3400 biomedical journals.. The results showed that the selection criteria laid down by Drugdoc are strictly adhered to; the mean time of alerting of an article was 11-3 weeks after receipt of the journal at Wellcome and all articles from a particular journal issue were reported by Drugdoc on average within 13-6 weeks.. Indexing was examined in detail and on average 8-1 primary thesaurus-controlled indexing terms were assigned per article.. Pilot studies were also run on SDI profiles compiled from the Drugdoc Thesaurus.."
507,"A Multidisciplinary and Computerized SDI Service for Industry and Research-Practical Experience and Costs In this paper the experiences, costs, price policy, market, sales promotion and foreign cooperation of a Danish documentation department are described in relation to two databases, as follows: The COMPENDEX tapes are scanned in Denmark, whereas the INSPEC tapes are scanned in Holland with the inclusion of Danish profiles according to a bilateral agreement.. The total costs in connection with COMPENDEX are evaluated and divided into four main components: Disbursement to the supplier of the tape system, working expenses of the documentation center, costs of the electronic data processing, and expenses connected with the procurement of the original material to the subscribers.. They can choose between including or deleting the COMPENDEX abstracts during sequential text scanning and printing-out.. Search profiles are formed by the terms (word, author, journal code) connected by AND/OR/NOT-logic and weight factors.. (The above documentation department belongs to the National Technological Library of Denmark and also two SDI services based on tape systems from CAS.. Retrospective searches have been carried out).."
508,"Interactive Reference Retrieval in Large Files We express the conviction that on-line reference retrieval will largely replace the present tape driven system in a few years.. We describe the design criteria of such an on-line system based on our experience of a pilot system which has been operational for 2 years, emphasizing the importance of minimizing the number of disk accesses.. We recommend the use of hash coding for searching in a thesaurus and point out that the user of an on-line system should use the most precise terms first and the common terms last - the opposite of the procedure in a manual search.."
509,"The Use of Hierarchic Clustering in Information Retrieval We introduce information retrieval strategies which are based on automatic hierarchic clustering of documents.. We discuss the evaluation of retrieval strategies and show, using a subset of the Cranfield Aeronautics document collection, that cluster-based retrieval strategies can be devised which are as effective as linear associative retrieval strategies and much more efficient.. Finally, we outline how cluster-based retrieval may be extended to large growing document collections and indicate some ways in which the effectiveness of cluster-based retrieval strategies may be improved.."
510,"Retrieval Efficiency from Titles and the Cost of Indexing By the means of the flexible machine search system three experiments have been made in order to test the retrieval efficiency of searching free text and keywords.. Base upon the relevance judgements of the users, the results indicate that titles and abstracts are good index material which can be used for machine searching without human indexing in the three fields studies.."
511,"Program Design for Retrospective Searches on Large Data Bases Retrospective search of large document data bases requires development of special techniques for automatic compression of data and minimization of the number of input-output operations to the computer accessible files.. Also, the computer program should be designed to require a relatively small amount of internal memory..  The present paper contains a description of the structure of a program that meets the above requirements.. The vocabulary of the data base is automatically expressed in terms of 8, 16 and 24 bit codes chosen to point to the natural spelling in a dictionary.. Thus file size is reduced without the necessity for extensive processing for decoding.. Use of a compressed bit string inverted index greatly reduces search time, and a storage management system enables long strings to be processed with use of a limited amount of internal storage.. Creation of ""reduced"" files and tables is an important feature of a program; it allows the files needed only by specific phases of the program to be designed to use a relatively small amount of internal storage and input-output time.."
512,"Experiences of IIT Research Institute in Operating a Computerized Retrieval System for Searching a Variety of Data Bases The Computer Search Center (CSC) at IIT Research Institute (IITRI) provides information from computer-readable data bases to users in industry, government and universities.. The center was designed to meet user needs by providing a variety of services from multiple data bases with minimal restrictions and a high degree of flexibility.. A new modular machine-independent PL/1 software system was developed for handling virtually any bibliographic-type base.. CSC have run at nine different computer facilities with different: hardware, computer models, versions of OS, peripherals of the PL/1 compiler.. All data bases are converted by preprocessors to a standard IITRI format which employs a directory and character string type of the structure..  User oriented profile features include: full free form Boolean logic with any degree of nesting; search terms may be any data element on a data base; search terms may be single words, multi-word terms, phrases, or term fragments; full truncation capabilities; optional sort of author, citation number, or weight; and optional printing of output on 5x8 cards, multilith masters, paper, or tape.. User aids were developed for each data base to assist in profile and monitoring.. They include: search manuals, truncation guides, term frequency list and KLIC indexes..  Research is conducted and statistics maintained to study, monitor, and improve Center components including data bases, user satisfaction, systems, personnel functions and services.. The many advantages of computerized retrieval, which are the raison d'etre for the center, include: coverage, thoroughness, consistency, interdisciplinariness, recall, speed, regularity, file preparation and cost effectiveness.."
513,"Communication and Information Processing within Scientific Disciplines: Empirical Findings for Psychology Scientific disciplines can be regarded as social devices which have, as one function, the analysis and reduction of raw information to assimilated knowledge of a type which can be transmitted through professional training.. Data on information flow in psychology reveal feedback to scientific workers and result in refinements of the product of research; later disseminations are interwoven with processes of evaluation and selection and are directed toward the creation of an integrated and tested body of knowledge.. The reported data finish an empirical base for Ziman's consensual model of science and illuminate difficulties which have arisen in the design and implementation of information systems.."
514,"Evaluating the Effectiveness of an On-Line, Natural Language Retrieval System An evaluation of an on-line retrieval system known as EARS (Epilepsy Abstracts Retrieval System) has been performed.. The system, which permits the free text searching of approximately 8000 abstracts drawn from Epilepsy Abstracts, is supported by the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke (NINDS).. Specialists in the field of neurology, at six medical centers in the United States, conducted on-line searches to satisfy their own needs for information.. Parallel searches were conducted on the same search topics by a neurologist at NINDS who was highly experienced in using the system.. The results of the original searches were evaluated in terms of recall, precision, and general user satisfaction.. A detailed analysis of factors affecting the success and failure of the on_line searches was carried out.."
515,"A Journal Selection Model and Its Implications for a Library System The problem of selecting which journals to acquire in order to best satisfy library objectives is modeled as a zero-one linear programming problem and examined in detail.. The model incorporates an objective function based on expected usage as a measure of journal worth and cost constraints which account for the scarcity of capital.. The model can be used to aid the librarian in making better selection decisions, since the objective function can be shown to reflect the evaluation of the library as an information retrieval system and as a service organization.. Moreover, the model of seen to be related to inventory problems and scheduling models in industrial operations..   Journal usage is discussed as a measure of journal worth and is contrasted to journal productivity.. Constraints are considered for scarce resources other than capital and for journal interrelationships.."
516,"Problems in Information Retrieval:  Logical Jumps in the Expression of Information In a structured data base, such as that obtained when information is indexed in a format including explicit relations, retrieval of all relevant items in response to a question may, in some cases, be restricted by technicalities of the structure.. Condensations in the form of logical jumps, or the omission of a concept with one relation out of a string of three concepts with two interstitial relations, have been investigated by two different methods, in order to overcome one of these technicalities.. Thirty-two rules are proposed which could permit the automatic condensation of either of both the stored information and the question, when the concepts and relations are in the form of linear or string display.. Nine rules are proposed for condensation of angular structures.. Other type of logical jump and abbreviation are discussed, together with related studies of expansions and inference steps.."
517,"Machine_Aided Indexing of Technical Literature To index successfully in the Defense Documentation Center's environment, an automated system must chose single words or phrases (dependent upon context) rapidly and economically.. The automation of DDC's indexing has been machine-aided from its inception.. A machine-aided indexing (MAI) system is described that indexes one million words of text per hour of CPU time.. Grammatical errors do not exceed five per cent of the output, so human screening is satisfactorily low.. The system could potentially scale up to an operational size of 10 million words of text per year - the equivalent of a dozen bibles or a third of the Encyclopedia Britannica.. In a batch mode, the programs to accomplish this indexing would require no more than fifteen minutes of CPU time per week.."
518,"A Bayesian Approach to Interactive Retrieval This paper presents a probabilistic model for interactive retrieval.. Specifically, it applies the principles of Bayesian statistical decision theory: (1) the use of both prior (subjective) and sample information about the relationship of document descriptions to query relevance, and (2) maximization of the expected value of a utility function, to the problem of optimally restructuring a search strategy in an interactive environment.."
519,"Distance between Sets as an Objective Measure of Retrieval Effectiveness A general measure of retrieval effectiveness having full metric properties and treating the ""retrieval system - arbiter of relevance""situation symmetrically, is the Marczewski-Steinhaus metric, D, measuring the distance between the set of relevant documents, A, and set of retrieved documents, B, according to D = 1 -(n (A ^ B)/n(A u B)).. D can be expressed as a function of Presicion and Recall, or of Generality, Fallout and Recall, and of other sets of traditional measures.. Acceptance of the measure allows criteria for retrieval optimality and degeneracy to be stated, defined by minimum and constant values of D respectively.. Precision_Recall degeneracy curves for D are given and compared with those for another general measure: the probability that a document will be correctly identified by a retrieval system.. Statistical extensions of D are examined, and these and other properties of the metric are illustrated with seven examples.."
520,CA Condensates as a Retrospective Search Tool	A Commentary A retrospective test search on 1 year of CA Condensates was carried out in order to calculate the cost per profile and to get an impression of how CA Condensates would suffice as a database for a retrospective use.. Some means of improving the search strategy by means of the CAS Standard Distribution Format were investigated.. The question is raised whether the costs and efforts presently devoted to research regarding retrospective searches on large free-text databases are justified in view of the low average precision ratios generally observed for free text databases and the very high number of references of potential interest retrieved..
521,"Compression of Bibliographic Files Using an Adaptation of Run-Length Coding Substantial degrees of compression of bibliographical data bases result from the application to them a modified form of run-length coding.. The method involves attenuation of the zero:one bit ratio of the data base.. This can be achieved by substitution of codes with the highest zero:one ratios the most frequent symbols, or by substitution of 2-bytes codes for diagrams.. A form of run-length coding in which the run-length is represented as a fixed-length binary number is then applied.."
522,"Automatic Indexing and Generation of Classification Systems by Algorithm A system of automatic indexing based on Baye's theorem is described briefly.. In assigning 124 documents to 9 categories, there were 97 cases of agreement with professional indexers.. Using a collection factor, based on 87 per cent human consistency from other courses, the computer appears then to index with 90 per cent accuracy in this case..  The technique is then used with two randomized sample document groups drawn from nine categories.. Each group in turn is used as the basis for indexing the other.. The computer knows only the number of categories.. After 8 cycles the computer is found to have formed 9 groups consisting of about 50 per cent of documents that were also lumped together by professional indexers on the basis of subject content..  A new measure of performance is proposed and some other applications of the technique indicated.."
523,"The Cost_Performance of an On-Line, Free-Text Bibliographic Retrieval System The cost-performance evaluation of the SUPARS system is reported.. SUPARS was an on-line, free-text bibliographic retrieval system; cost-effectiveness data of such systems are not readily available.. In our evaluation, two measures of cost were employed: a computer processing charge expressed in dollars, and the number of documents retrieved (a measure of work that must be expended to review the retrieved items).. The measure of performance was an estimate of the recall ratio..  To obtain the requisite measures an experimental plan was developed in which experts searched the data base of Psychological Abstracts forming their queries from written statements of information needs.. These statements (along with the list of documents relevant to them) were produced by people with information problems.. Tallies were kept of the number of documents retrieved before each of the designed relevant items were found.. The major findings are noted below..  (1) Queries to the system employing simple Boolean operators (AND, OR) have better cost-performance characteristics than queries using more elegant searching operators..  (2) On-demand access to the index or dictionary contributes sizeably to improving the cost-performance of the system..  (3) The argument is raised that human factors, such as the differences among users of a system, probably should be a major factor in the design, operation and evaluation of retrieval systems.. It appears that consideration of these factors will improve system cost-performance.."
524,"Analysis of the Microstructure of Titles in the INSPEC Data-Base A high degree of constancy has been found to exist in the microstructure of titles of samples of the INSPEC data-base taken over 3-year period.. Character and diagram frequencies are shown to be relatively stable, while variable-length character-string characterizing samples separated by 3 years in time show close similarities.."
525,"On the Role of Subjectivity in Establishing, Using, Operating and Evaluating Information Retrieval Systems Treatise II on Retrieval System Theory The personal literature search of a scientist is strongly governed by subjective influences.. If he delegates his literature search he should always be aware of the problems necessarily emanating from his subjective view.. This prevents him from imposing unsatisfiable demands on the delegated search, particularly with respect to its expected performance, and makes him conscious of the fact that in order to satisfy his entire information need he cannot dispense with the browsing serendipity of his personal literature search.. He will also better understand the peculiarities of the documentary methods needed for operating large and continuously growing systems as compared with the methods sufficient for his personal file..  The information scientist on the other hand, in charge of establishing, operating, and evaluating retrieval systems of high performance and survival power, should take into consideration the pronouncedly subjective character of fundamental notions such as ""information"" and ""order"".. This gives him a better understanding of the kind of inquiries submitted to him and of the inherently, even if latently, subjective character of several fundamental operations in storage and retrieval and will cause him to refrain from futile attempts to make such operations more ""objective"" and formal.. Such a better mutual understanding will be bound to promote advance in methodology and psychology of scientific communication.."
526,On-Line Information retrieval as a Scientists Tool The use of an on-line information retrieval system by the scientists themselves is described.. MEDUSA was designed to allow physicians to interrogate the MEDLARS data base.. A brief description is given of the system and details of an experiment to test its effectiveness.. Search formulation prepared on-line by medical research workers are compared for recall and precision with the same requests formulated by search editors in the normal way.. The results show that physicians can use an on-line system effectively..
527,"A Technique for Machine-Aided Indexing Subject indexing of text can, in principle, be accomplished in many ways.. The technique for machine-aided indexing (MAI) developed at the Defense Documentation Center (DDC) is illustrated on a randomly chosen abstract.. Additional text is provided in coded form so that the reader can more fully explore this technique and form his own opinion of the applicability and versatility of this particular procedure.. The DDC method for subject indexing is very close to operational status for a data base which grows at the rate of two million words of text per year.."
528,"Customized User Services via Interactions with LEADERMART LEADERMART is a fully operational information retrieval system featuring on-line interactive service to a wide variety of user groups in business, industry, government, and universities.. With the availability of many computer-readable bibliographic data bases, experience with users dictated the development of special-purpose information products based on a thorough understanding of individual client needs, and the delivery of such products in a customized form.. Each different application required a different package, with variations of both software and data base coverage.. These packages were developed via suitable modification of modular system software to result in products tailored to user idiosyncracies..  The paper describes problems associated with these repackaging procedures, and discusses the changes brought about by the introduction of an on-line, interactive retrieval service into the operating environment of users.. Implications for networking and resource-sharing, focusing upon cost-effectiveness and performance measures, are also discussed.."
529,"A Remote-Terminal Retrospective Search Facility Using a Hybrid of Microform and Computer Storage This paper describes a technical document center providing remote-terminal retrospective search capability and shows its evolution from the traditional catalog card operation..  The system uses mini-computers for on-line input and editing of data and for production of announcements, and uses a commercial computer-utility/ communication network for retrospective searching.. A hybrid of microform and computer storage was designed to decrease computer and line charges and to allow for security considerations..  Bilingual search capability in either of two models suitable for experienced users or novices is provided to a network of satellite libraries separated by as much as 3000 miles..  A Selective Dissemination of Information service is provided using in-house and foreign data bases and serving over 600 profiles of interest.."
530,"Indexing Language Structure for Automated Retrieval A proposal for a computer-aided method of building up an indexing language is made.. The method involves linking the terms relevant to any special retrieval system into the UDC, preferably in the form of the Standard Reference Code when it becomes available.. Links between the terms are intended to be established in such a way that, provided indexing input sessions are accomplished via a video terminal, a hybrid thesaurus-classification could be built up by a form of ""learning process"" in the course of regular indexing.. The proposed means of establishing links between terms are described, the associated computer system is outlined, and an example of indexing language built-up procedure is presented.. Possible uses for natural language search, using the thesaurus-classification as a ""switching language"", and for automatic classification, are suggested as long-term aims.."
531,"Index Term Weighting Various approaches to index term weighting have been investigated.. In particular, claims have been made for the value of statistically-based indexing in automatic retrieval systems.. The paper discusses the logic of different types of weighting, and describes experiments testing weighting schemes of these types.. The result show that one type of weighting leads to material performance improvements in quite different collection environments.."
532,"Relevance, Pertinence and Information System Development The different between pertinence and relevance is discussed.. Other pairs of terms and the differences between their members are examined, and the suggestion is made that such studies could increase our understanding of the theory of information systems, and hence lead to practical improvements.. Some examples are considered, among them the use of ""personality profiles"" to improve the pertinence effectiveness of systems.."
533,"The Dynamic Scientific-Information User In this article we examine the concept of the ""information user"", and attempt to describe some of the dynamics of the situation by discussing some of our data relative to ""intraindividual variations"" (changes which occur within individual scientists as their scientific work progresses) and ""interindividual variations"" (physical vs social scientists, basic vs applied scientists, experienced vs inexperienced scientists, and scientists' working in the same subject-matter area vs scientists who recently changed their areas).. All of these were found to produce significant variation in the information needs of scientists and in the sources they used to satisfy these needs.. Some implications of these findings relative to information technology are discussed.."
534,"Project Intrex: A General Review A comprehensive review of the experimental information storage and retrieval system developed by Project Intrex is presented, together with a description of major results and conclusions that were derived through use of the system.. Salient features of the Intrex system included an argumented catalog stored in an online interactive computer in combination with full-text storage on microfiche.. Guaranteed access to full text at remote allocations was provided through use of an automatic fiche storage and retrieval system that was computer-controlled.. Discussed in the paper are the details of the catalog structure, user experiments, economic studies and information-system networking.."
535,"Information Systems, Services, and Centers This book is concerned with the practices of information transfer and use. It examines information science for the purpose of control of the information ""flood"" through systems, services, and centers. The book is designed as a text for use at the university level and as a reference source for working information scientists and specialists, for documentalists, for engineers and for researchers in the physical, life, and social sciences."
536,"Information Theory and Reliable Communication This book is designed primarily for use as a first-year graduate text in information theory, suitable for both engineers and mathematicians. It is assumed that the reader has some understanding of freshman calculus and elementary probability, and in the later chapters some introductory random process theory. Unfortunately there is one more requirement that is harder to meet. The reader must have a reasonable level of mathematical maturity and capability for abstract thought. The major results of the theory are quite subtle and abstract and must sometimes be arrived at by what appears to be rather devious routes. Fortunately, recent simplifications in the theory have made the major results more accessible than in the past."
537,"The Information Sciences This book describes the results of a study which the author has carried out during the summer of 1969 in Heidelberg and San Francisco about the development of the information sciences in the Federal Republic of Germany. This study was conducted following an undertaking between the Federal Ministry for Scientific Research, the Institute for Documentation questions, and the Study Group for Research in System Science."
538,"Information Retrieval Systems This book is concerned primarily with those ""intellectual"" factors that significantly affect the performance of all information retrieval systems; namely,   - indexing policy and practice   - vocabulary control   - searching control   - interaction between the system and its users   My viewpoint is that of the evaluator of information systems. I have therefore paid considerable attention to a discussion of the requirements of users of information systems and the measurement of system performance in terms of the efficient and economical satisfaction of these requirements.   The book does not concern itself, except indirectly, with equipment for the implementation of retrieval systems, a topic that is adequately covered by other volumes in this series. Moreover, it is my contention that the importance of ""hardware"" and ""data processing"" aspects of information systems has been exaggerated in the United States, with some detriment to the performance of many systems."
539,Information Retrieval Languages This book gives classification and detailed description of different types of information retrieval languages. A universal scheme served as the basis for classifying information retrieval languages. The book analyses in detail universal scheme similarities and differences between natural and information retrieval languages; some ways of constructing information retrieval language are discussed.
540,"Information: Methodology This book sheds light on basic problems, principles and results of philosophical-methodological research in information concepts, gives critical analysis of its idealistic interpretation. Author proves possibility more general definition of information using categories of reflectivity and inequality. Both mathematical variants (statistical-probability and nonstatistical) as well as semantic concepts of information are analyzed, basic information species and functions in human society are determined."
541,"ISBD(S) and Title Main Entry for Serials At the IFLA Liverpool Conference in 1971 a Joint working Group of the Committees on Cataloguing and on Serial Publications was set up to draw up an International Standard Bibliographic Description for Serials, taking the ISBD(M) as a model in so far as practicable. As might be expected, the special problems presented by serial publications made the task of developing an ISBD(S) a difficult assignment which the Joint Working Group tackled with great energy and devotion. The successive drafts were prepared by the Chairman and the Secretary, Mlle M.-L. Bossuat and Mlle M. Pelletier.  Probably no data element presented such a severe problem as that of serial title. The seemingly countless Mitteilungen, Memoires, Proceedings, Bulletins, Trudy's, and the like seemed to demand some useful and standardized way to be identified. A solution to this problem was found in the adoption of a device which consisted of marrying the author statement to the generic title proper, with a wedding ring consisting of a space-hyphen- space and dubbing the happy couple the ""distinctive title."""
542,"(Towards a Theory of the Concept) A concept is regarded as the common element of both classification systems and thesauri. Reality and knowledge are not represented by words or terms but by the meanings ""behind"" these tokens. A concept of, say, an object, a property of an object, a process, etc. is derived from verbal statements on these as subjects and may therefore be defined as the whole of true and possible predicates that can be collected on a given subject. It is from these predicates that the characteristics of the corresponding concepts can be derived. Common characteristics in different concepts lead to relations between concepts, which relations in turn are factors for the formation of concept systems. Different kinds of relationships as well as different kinds of concepts are distinguished. It is pointed out that an orderly supply of the elements for propositions (information statements) on new knowledge requires the construction and availability of such concept systems."
543,Impact of Scientific Serials on the Advancement of Medical Knowledge: An Objective Method of Analysis A common tool for the selection of serial publications for a research library is the lists of most cited serials. The possibilities of this method were first studied by Gross and Gross who in 1927 applied a method of sample statistical investigation to the grading of scientific serials according to their relative importance based on citation counting from source journals.
544,"The Nature of Scientific Communication and Influence As the formal communication system of science has become less able to supply information with the rapidity that scientists require, increasing attention has been paid to the structure of communication in science.. How are scientific publications utilized by scientists? What is accomplished by the circulation of scientific information on an informal basis? How does the social organization among scientists facilitate or inhibit these processes?  Three types of studies have been conducted in this area: (a) studies of the scientific literature itself; (b) studies of how scientists obtain the information which they need for their research; and (c) studies of the relationship between scientists who conduct research in the same areas.. For the most part, studies of formal communication and information gathering have been conducted in the absence of all but the most rudimentary theoretical models, as has been pointed out in at least three recent reviews of these studies (Libbey and Zaltman, 1967, p. 64; Paisley, 1968; Storer, 1968, p. 12).. The lack of theory can be attributed partly to the practical orientation of many of the studies and also to the fact that an adequate model cannot be based on any one of these types of studies alone.. A useful theory must integrate knowledge from all three types.. In this article, we will review these studies and will describe a teoretical model which has been designed to fill this purpose.."
545,"The Literature of the Social Sciences: a Survey of Citation Studies The great concern with scientific communication in the last few decades has produced a number of studies analyzing the use of information.. One approach to these matters has been via the citation study - a method often used in the physical sciences, but applied less frequently in the humanities and social sciences.. However, in the latter area, enough citation studies have been completed to produce material for interesting comparisons.."
546,"Interactive Bibliographic Search: The User/Computer Interface On the 14th and 15th of January, 1971, a Workshop on ""The User Interface for Interactive Search of Bibliographic Data Bases"" was held at Ricky's Hyatt House in Palo Alto, California. The Workshop, sponsored by the Information Systems committee of the American Federation of Information Processing Societies, brought together a group of information scientists who have been directly involved with this subject area. They were provided in advance with a ""Challenge"" paper and with a number of papers prepared in response to that challenge. The Workshop sessions themselves were devoted exclusively to focussed discussions of the material and of the problems in and the prospects for more effective systems design of the user interface. The content of these two days of deliberation prompted making the substance of the Workshop experience available to a larger audience. This book is intended to accomplish that goal."
547,"AIM-TWX - an Experimental On-Line Bibliographic Retrieval System The Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications of the National Library of Medicine, in conjunction with the NLM Library Operations staff, initiated in June 1970 a new experimental service called AIM-TWX (Abridged Index Medicus-TWX) to provide rapid, responsive searching of the medical literature.   This experiment is being conducted to identify the need for and usefulness of such services to help medical practitioners situated in isolated areas, to assist in undergraduate, graduate, and continuing medical education, and to provide information precisely when and where it is needed for health care. A limited group of practitioners, students, and librarians is being given access to the system so that it will not be overloaded and rejected because of busy signals, and so that a variety of user groups can test it."
548,"The Computer/Library Interface: the Last Five Years University printing presses exist, and are subsidized by the Government for the purpose of producing books which no one can read; and they are true to their high calling. Books are the sources of material for lectures. They should be kept from the young; for to read books and remember what you read, well enough to reproduce it, is called 'cramming', and this is destructive of all true education. The best way to protect the young from books, is, first, to make them in such a way that no one can find them without several years' training. A lecturer is a sound scholar, who is chosen to teach on the ground that he was once able to learn. Eloquence is not permissible in a lecture; it is a privilege reserved by stature for the Public Orator."
549,"The Intergroup Conflict In one broad category of theories, the problems are expressed in terms of actualities of events in group relations as they exist in everyday life. On the whole, theories advanced by many social scientists fall in this broad category. In this concern over actualities the problem is frequently not stated and discussion not developed in a way that can be tested rigorously. In the second broad category of theories, problems are stated and analysis carried out in terms of more rigorous-appearing concepts and units of analysis. Theories coming from psychologists and social scientists heavily influenced by them fall within this broad category. In this line of approach, theories are advanced without due regard to actualities, and consequently they are plagued with serious questions of validity."
550,"Interlibrary Loan Involving Academic Libraries Interlibrary loan transactions involving academic libraries in the United States numbered over 800,000 items in 1963-64. This number is growing exponentially. Large libraries report that they cannot fill about a third of the interlibrary loan requests they receive. Unfilled interlibrary loans are costly to both the borrowing and the lending libraries and reduce the usefulness of the service to the reader. Many of these interlibrary loan failures are preventable, chiefly by publishing policies of the lending libraries to prevent borrowers from requesting noncirculating materials and by determining in advance what library owns the item wanted."
551,"Interlibrary Loan Policies Directory In 1972-73 approximately 194,000 interlibrary loan requests were not filled because the borrowing library in ignorance requested non-circulating material contrary to the interlibrary lending policies of the lending library. These unfilled requests probably cost the borrowing and lending libraries over $400,000 in wasted manpower, besides disappointing readers who waited in vain for their materials. Much of this waste could be prevented if borrowing libraries check in advance the lending policies before sending requests.   The major elements determining whether or not libraries receive requests to borrow from libraries at a distance are whether the library lists unusual materials in union lists, especially THE NATIONAL UNION CATALOG, THE UNION LIST OF SERIALS AND NEW SERIAL TITLES, and whether it has strong collections in a subject field listed in library directories. Volume of out-of-state lending is related to the type of lending library, the size of collection, budget for current   acquisitions, number of periodicals received, photocopy charges, population density in neighboring states, proximity to other libraries, and completeness of reporting holdings in the National Union Catalog or other bibliographic centers."
552,"Interlibrary Requests Our survey, in other words, is offered within the bounds of descriptive or deductive statistics which seeks to analyze a group, not attempt to estimate the parameters of that population of which the group has been chosen as a sample. The latter role is assumed by inductive statistics which makes use of probability sampling. Accordingly, our data are presented in those forms and with those statistical measures appropriate to the methods of descriptive statistics: arrays, frequency distributions, breakdowns by categories which seem of optimum value to the librarian and administrator, e.g., the frequency of requests for journals versus monographs, the age of journals requested, the types and ages of materials requested by the various types of libraries (university, pharmaceutical, etc.). The tables are arranged to give evidence of the types of frequency distribution revealed by the Survey, as well as to indicate central tendency, dispersion, rank order, and possibly correlations for significant factors."
553,"An Introduction to Computers in Information Science This book is an introduction to the field of information science and technology, with particular emphasis on document organization. Its point of view is general in the sense that it attempts to deal with types of problems rather than particular systems. When particular systems are described they are used as examples of systems rather than as models.     The method of presentation is expository at the introductory level. While differing points of view are frequently noted, this book is not intended to provide definitive critical evaluation. Relevant research is reviewed in order to indicate current thinking and activities in the field."
554,"Introduction to Information Science The main emphasis of this book is on work of a theoretical and experimental nature rather than on practical applications. However, the articles selected are viewed as having a considerable potential in two major respects: they have important implications for the practice of information handling, but even more important, they contain aspects of generalization. The book is oriented toward basic and experimental work, such as that performed by traditional sciences, with the hope that a reader may find much relevant to his own interests, educational level and background, a bridge toward generalizations, a feeling of interconnection between seemingly unrelated works either presented in the book or found in the literature, an awareness of apparent gaps in knowledge, and even ideas for practical solutions or further theoretical or experimental work."
555,"Introduction to Library Science: Basic Elements of Library Service Librarianship classifies as a social science because the library, as an institution, is a creature of society, and its goal is the improvement of society by helping the individual to understand himself and the world of which he is a part. But the library is also concerned with man as a rational being. Thus, it remains primarily a humanistic enterprise. The traditional lines of demarcation among the disciplines are breaking down and in certain areas becoming almost obliterated; and librarianship, in both its technology and its services, is drawing ever closer to the social and physical sciences. But we would do well to remind ourselves of the library's humanistic origins; otherwise, in excessive enthusiasm for the technology of science and the social action of the behaviorist, we may lose sight of the individual and his needs and the humanistic values implicit in them."
556,"Introduction to Subject Indexing; a Programmed Text This programmed text has been developed from work initially carried out under a research project funded by the Office for Scientific and Technical Information (now the British Library Research and Development Department). The project, designed to investigate the applicability of the techniques of programmed instruction in the teaching of practical subject indexing, was conducted at the School of Librarianship, the Polytechnic of North London in cooperation with the College of Librarianship Wales. The programmed instruction course, written during this project and used by students at both Schools of Librarianship, forms the basis of the programmed text.  Most of the existing programmed texts relevant to the field of practical subject indexing are concerned with the translation stage of indexing and aim to impart skills in the use of particular indexing languages. Our intention, in the above-mentioned project, was to produce a course of programmed instruction which presented an integrated view of the basic principles and practices of subject indexing rather than attempting to impart to the student a high degree of familiarity with any particular system."
557,"Introduction to Systems Philosophy The general systems theory, pioneered by von Bertalanffy, Kenneth Boulding, Anatol Rapoport and their collaborators, gives us a theoretical instrument for assuring the mutual relevance of scientific information and philosophic meaning. Extended into a general systems philosophy, this instrument can polarize the contemporary theoretical scene as a magnet polarizes a field of charged particles: by ordering the formerly random segments into a meaningful pattern. If made good use of, this instrument could channel to us a stream of informed as well as sophisticated answers through the cross-fertilization of contemporary science and philosophy.   This, then is my credo; the conviction which led to the formulation of the present Introduction to ""systems philosophy"" over a period of three years of research in alternating states of euphoria and dejection."
558,"Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics This is a introductory book in the sense that it does not presuppose any previous training in the subject. But it does assume that the reader - especially the reader whose educational background, like my own, is more in the 'humanities' than in mathematics and 'science' - is prepared to make a certain intellectual effort with respect to the use of symbols and formulae. Few subjects suffer more than linguistics from the separation of the 'sciences' and the 'humanities' that is still maintained in the curricula of most of our schools ad universities. For contemporary linguistic theory draws simultaneously, and in roughly equal measure, upon the more traditional approach to language that is characteristic of the 'humanities' and the more 'scientific' approach that has developed recently in connection with advances that have been made in formal logic, computer science and automata theory."
559,"Introduction to University Library Administration The last ten years have witnessed the growth of an intense public interest in university affairs. Almost anything to do with universities is now headline news. Previously such attention as they did receive was limited to brief reports in sober middle class newspapers of appointments, awards and meetings, leavened once a year by an obligatory account in all newspapers of the Boat Race. All this has changed: as Michael Befoff comments in his book The Plateglass Universities (having made the foregoing points and more besides), what were once ivory towers have now become goldfish bowls.  He goes on to give the obvious explanation for the change: universities are of public interest because they are now almost wholly supported by the taxpayers' money. They represent a massive investment on the part of the government, and consequently are expected to yield a vitally important return in trained and educated manpower. Over the last twenty years government expenditure in this country on universities has risen from four million pounds a year to more than two hundred million pounds a year. The total university student population is in excess of two hundred thousand, and teaching and research staff number approximately twenty-five thousand."
560,"Indivisible Colleges; Diffusion of Knowledge in Scientific Communities In the last two decades, dramatic increases in the scope and volume of scientific research have occurred, as may be illustrated by the fact that the amount of scientific literature is doubling approximately every ten years (Price 1963). For the scientist who needs to locate particular items of scientific information and for the documentation specialist who must make them readily available, the organization and management of this huge and expanding store of information is a serious problem. Increasingly radical solutions are being proposed. For example, some experts would like to scrap scientific journals and distribute their contents piecemeal. Information retrieval and delivery systems are being developed to enable scientists to locate information quickly and effectively."
561,"A Dynamic Programming Approach to R and D Budgeting and Project Selection Contemporary models of research and development are incomplete in that they ignore the many reappraisals and budgeting decisions that occur in the time between a project's proposal and its commercialization.. The sequential decision aspects of project budgeting are particularly important since 1) the research expenditure is usually an order of magnitude less than the irrevocable investment for commercialization and 2) an allocation to a project today does not presuppose continuation of the project into future periods..  The research and development budgeting problem is structured to take into account the sequential decision characteristic.. Utilizing the technique of dynamic programming, methods are developed to determine optimal project budgets when the aggregate research and development budget is either constrained or unconstrained.. These models also suggest a rational explanation of the patterns of project expenditures over time that one observes in practice..  Finally, some of the shortcomings of the developed methods which inhibit their practical application are discussed.."
562,"The Association Factor in Information Retrieval This paper describes an all computer document retrieval system which can find documents related to a request even though they may not be indexed by the exact terms of the request, and can present these documents in the order of their relevance to the request.. The key to this ability lies in the application of a statistical formula by which the computer calculates the degree of association between pairs of index terms.. With proper manipulation of these associations (entirely within the machine) a vocabulary of synonyms, near synonyms and other words closely related to any given term or group of terms is derived.. Such a vocabulary related to a group of request terms is believed to be a much more powerful tool for selecting documents from a collection than has been available heretofore.. By noting the number of matching terms between this extended list of request terms and the terms used to index a document, and with due regard for their degree of association, documents are selected by the computer and arranged in the order of their relevance to the request.."
563,"A Study of Methods for Systematically Abbreviating English Words and Names This study investigated various techniques for systematically abbreviating English words and names.. Most of the attention was given to the techniques which could be mechanized with a digital device such as a general purpose digital computer.. Particular was paid to techniques that could process incoming information without prior knowledge of its existence (i.e., no table lookups).. Thirteen basic techniques and their modifications are described.. In addition, most of the techniques were tested on a sample of several thousand subject words and several thousand proper names in order to provide a quantitative measure of comparison.."
564,"Automatic Document Classification Starting with a collection of 405 document abstracts dealing with computers, the experiment in automatic document classification proceeds to construct an empirically based, mathematically derived classification system by use of a factor analysis technique.. The documents are then classified into these derived categories by five subjects, and the resulting classification serves as a criterion against which the automatic classification is to be evaluated.. Of the 90 documents in the validation group which contained two or more clue words, and which therefore could be automatically classified, 44 documents, or 48.9 per cent, were placed into their correct categories by use of a computer formula.. These results are almost identical to the results obtained by Maron in a previous experiment using the same data but with a different set of classification categories and a different computational formula.. The experimental evidence support the conclusion that automatic document classification is possible.. Additional experiments are described which when executed should improve the accuracy of the automatic classification technique.."
565,"Computer Evaluation of Indexing and Text Processing Automatic indexing methods are evaluated and design criteria for modern information system are derived..  Information retrieval, indexing methods, automatic retrieval, information systems, document retrieval, text analysis, document handling, retrieval effectiveness, SMART, precision, recall.."
566,"Semantic Clustering of Index Terms A computer procedure to recognize indexing vocabularies is described..Index terms are drawn from the vocabulary of a structured indexing system and may consist of single words, collection of words, or syntactic phrases.. The basic idea is that a measure of the semantic association between index terms can be determined from the structural relationships which the terms exhibit by their relative positions in the system.. The association measure, which is based on a priori (preassigned) semantic relationships between terms, rather than their co-occurrence in a document corpus, is then for grouping index terms into clusters or concepts.. Some results of an experimental investigation are presented..  Information, retrieval, clustering, index terms, semantic, graphs, clusters, associations, synonyms, subgraphs, complete, maximal, connected, component, relevance measure, vocabulary, indexing systems, cliques.."
567,"The Influence of Data Characteristics and Usage on Direct Access File Organization Memory utilization and retrieval time from direct access inverted files are investigated as a function of the data base, the demands on it, and a parameter which the system designer may control.. An analysis of the effects of data base characteristics and data base usage is also made for a linked list structure..  Information retrieval, direct access memory, disk, drum, data base, access time, inverted list, threaded list.."
568,"The Application of Pattern Recognition to Screening Prospective Anticancer Drugs Pattern recognition has been introduced to the chemical literature as a general tool which can be used by the chemist to reduce masses of experimental data to relevant information. Perhaps more importantly, it provides connections between raw, multivariant data and sought-for information without making restrictive assumptions about the underlying statistics of the data. The general problem has been stated as follows. Given a collection of objects and a list of measurements made on each object, is it possible to find and/or predict a property of the objects that is not directly measurable but is known to be related to the measurements via some unknown relationship? The only assumption made is that similarities and dissimilarities among objects are reflected in at least some of the measurements."
569,"Stereochemically Unique Naming Algorithm An algorithm has been developed and implemented to generate for each chemical structure a unique and invariant linear name which includes double bond and asymmetric carbon isomerism.. A logical proof is given for the one-to-one correspondence between name and structure.. By inspection of the linear names of two structures, one can determine if the two structures are identical, nonisometric, constitutionally isometric, diastereometric, or enantiometric.. The algorithm determines the true stereocenters and calculates a reduced set of chiral centers, Src.. It is proven that if three are any centers in Src that the compound must be chiral; an a chiral compound must have Src = null.. Extensions of the algorithm are outlined to allow uniquely naming conformational isomers.."
570,"Deriving Term Relations for a Corpus by Graph Theoretical Clusters We discuss how alternative methods of automatic term clustering may provide insight into how terms are related within a corpus. The work reported uses a corpus of 2267 documents that contain 3950 index terms.	A similarity matrix is developed using the document - term matrix. A threshold level T is applied to the similarity matrix. Entries in the matrix that are greater than or equal to the threshold level are set equal to one, and the remaining entries are set to zero.  Three definitions are applied to the corresponding graph of each threshold matrix to develop clusters. These are, (1) the connected components of the graph, (2) the maximal complete subgraphs of the graph, and (3) the combined maximal complete subgraphs of the graph as described that show how insight may be gained into the term relations by varying the threshold levels and the cluster definitions."
571,"Automatic Abstracting and Indexing.. II. Production of Indicative Abstracts by Application of Contextual Inference and Syntactic Coherence Criteria Together with the increasing shortage of qualified abstracts, the factors of time, cost and value have lent impetus to a trend toward the automatic generation of abstracts and indexes.. This trend has caused increased emphasis to be placed on the abstract as the locus of data for automatic retrieval systems.. This necessitates the creating of high quality abstracts.. It is the purpose of this paper to report on the development of techniques for the automatic production of high quality abstracts from the full text of the original document.. It is necessary to analyze the conditions under which various methods of sentence selection are successful, in order to develop criteria for selecting sentences to form an abstract.. But clearly, an abstract can be produced by rejecting sentences of the original which are irrelevant to the abstract.. As will be seen, it is this point which is perhaps the most significant contribution of this paper.. Methods of sentence selection and rejection are discussed.. These include contextual inference, intersentence reference, frequency criteria, and coherency considerations.. The automatic abstracting system we have developed consists basically of a dictionary, called the Word Control List, and of a set of rules for implementing certain functions specified for each WCL entry.. The abstracts we have obtained so far are of sufficiently good quality to indicate that large-scale testing of the methods of the automatic abstracting system is warranted.."
572,"Linguistics and Information Science This paper defines the relationship between linguistics and information science in terms of a common interest in natural language. The notion of automated processing of natural language - i.e., machine simulation of the language processing activities of a human - provides novel possibilities for interaction between linguists, who have a theoretical interest in such activities, and information scientists, who have more practical goals, e.g. simulating the language processing activities of an indexer with a machine.  The concept of a natural language information system is introduced as a framework for reviewing automated language processing effort by computational linguists and information scientists. In terms of this framework, the former have concentrated on automating the operations of the component for content analysis and representation, while the latter have emphasized the data management component. The complementary nature of these developments allows the postulation of an integrated approach to automated language processing. This approach, which is outlined in the final sections of the paper, incorporates current notions in linguistic theory and information science, as well as design features of recent computational linguistic models."
573,"Ascertaining Activities in a Subject Area Through Bibliometric Analysis A combination of quantitative and qualitative analyses were used on the journal articles indexed in one volume of Library Literature.. Findings include: the dispersion of a articles among journals followed a Bradford-type distribution except for a ""collapse"" at the end, possibly showing low level of interaction of librarianship with other fields; considerable proportion of articles was of news-type; administration was the largest single subject covered.. The methodology may be appropriate for analysis of activities in other fields.."
574,"Information Concepts and Their Utility The concept of information is examined within the framework of the Mathematical Theory of Communication and semiotics, the study of signs and sign systems.. The implications of these theories for the better understanding of information as we deal with this concept in the context of information systems are discussed.."
575,"A Decision Theory View of the Information Retrieval Situation: An Operations Research Approach A decision theory approach is used to model the information retrieval decision problem of which documents to retrieve from a library collection in response to a specific user query for information.. A thorough discussion of decision theory, including the components of the alternatives,states-of-nature, outcomes, and evaluations - as well as of the optimization process under the cases of certainty, risk, and uncertainty - is presented.. Bayesian statistics are also discussed to show how prior information about the various documents via classification analysis can affect the decision process under risk.. An example problem is used to illustrate the decision theory approach and to compare tha overall performance of the retrieval system under risk with and without document classification information..  Thus, the operations research technique of decision theory is used to model the retrieval decision process, illustrate how important evaluation is, and to demonstrate the value of prior information via document classification analysis.. Moreover, the paper presents, in a somewhat tutorial mode, an overall framework for considering the information retrieval decision problem, incorporating the aspects of cost-effectiveness and alternative evaluation, which allows one to better understand the contributions made by many researchers in this crucial area.."
576,"Classification of Scientific Documents by Means of Self_Generated Groups Employing Free Language A study was undertaken to classify mechanically a document collection using the free-language words in the titles and abstracts of a corpus of 261 physics research papers.. Using a clustering algorithm, results were obtained which closely duplicated the clusters obtained by previous experiments with citations.. A brief comparison is made with a traditional manual classification system.. It is shown that the mechanical procedure is capable of achieving simultaneous average relevance and recall figures above 80%.."
577,"Probabilistic Models for Automatic Indexing This paper is developed in two stages. The first stage describes an experiment that explores properties of the class of words that are not useful in conveying subject meaning and distinguishes them from those classes of words that do convey subject meaning to various degrees. In particular, we study the clustering properties of these words; the analysis is based on statistical properties alone, and techniques are introduced that may be of value in other areas of information science. On the basis of the results of this experiment, a model of word occurrences is introduced and discussed. Later papers by us and by Harter will apply this model to indexing."
578,"Terse Literatures: I. Terse Conclusions Terse Conclusion: Prompt literatures of organized terse conclusions may increase ability to keep up in a subject, reduce need for translation, and make information available promptly."
579,"Functions of a Man-Machine Interactive Information Retrieval System An effective man-machine interactive retrieval system is not achieved by simply placing a terminal on each end of an existing machine retrieval system.. An interactive system requires a sequence of steps in which man and machine alternately take action.. It should also provide different levels of services to experienced and inexperienced searchers, recognize the difference between a narrow and broad query, furnish clues as to the next direction to be searched, recognize the data base dynamically as the searcher changes his viewpoint, provide a ranking of responses in the most likely sequence and offer the searcher the option of overriding the ranking when a particular term is of extreme significance..  An online interactive system meeting many of these needs has been developed and tested.. The objectives of the development of this system, BROWSER, was to investigate the effectiveness of a free-form query with a combinatorial search algorithm and the effectiveness of various techniques and components to facilitate online browsing.."
580,"Overlap in the Lists of Journals Monitored by Biosis, CAS, and Ei In April 1970, the BioSciences Information Service of Biological Abstracts, the Chemical Abstracts Service, and Engineering Index, Inc. began a five-part study to determine the relationships between and the overlap in coverage in their printed publications and computer-readable services.. This study was designed to provide information needed by these three accessing services for planning future cooperative programs and for reconciling differences in policies and practices so as to make their publications and services more useful to their user communities..  This paper is based on the first part of the study, which compared listings of the journals each service was routinely monitoring as of 1 May 1970.. Of the 14,592 different journals monitored, 1% were monitored by all three of the services, 27% were monitored by two of the three services, and 72% were monitored by only one of the three services.. Subsequent phases of the study will determine the extent to which the services cover the same articles within the journals.."
581,"Structure and Effectiveness of The Citation Identifier, an Operational Computer Program for Automatic Identification of Case Citations in Legal Literature A computer program for automatic identification of ""full form"" case citations in legal literature (e.g., Rutherford v. Geddes, 4 Wall. 220, 18 L. Ed. 343; Southland Industries, Inc. v. Federal Communications Commission, 1938, 69 App. D.C., 82, 99 F.2D 117) has been developed by this group and is now operational..   The level of performance of this program known as ""The Citation Identifier"" is high.. In a recent computer run, The Citation Identifier scanned ther full texts of 191 randomly selected decisions of U.S. Court of Appeals (some 400,000 words of running text) and located correctly 2,220 full-form citations out of a total of 2,227 (that is, better than 99% of the total).. Only seven misses and three false drops occurred..  Of 2,220 full-form citations located correctly, 1944 (87%) were identified perfectly.. In addition, there were 276 partial identifications containing two types of errors: (1) partial identifications in which some citation terms were mistakenly lopped off by the program (""short hits""); and (2) partial identifications that contained words improperly included in the citations (""long hits"").  Both types of errors are, for the most part, easily correctible and can be largely eliminated by suitable changes in the program..  The Citation Identifier operates rather rapidly.. In a recent test run, the total time required to process some 400,000 running words of text was approximately 15 1/2 minutes.. This speed could be further increased by suitable changes in the computer program..  An extension of The Citation Identifier to reduced-form citations (e.g., ""the Geddes decision"", ""the Southland Industries case"") is now in preparation.."
582,"Title Indexes as Alerting Services in the Chemical and Life Sciences The principles underlying alerting services are discussed.. General alerting services (as distinct from SDI systems) need to transfer to their users a large quantity of current but mainly irrelevent information as speedily as possible.. As title indexes are the easiest to prepare and are therefore common, the user needs to know how much significant information is not discernible from a documents title.. This is estimated to be 20-25% but can vary with subject and type of information sought.. If a search of, say, Chemical Titles is made, ignoring synonyms but allowing for all syntactical variants, only about one third of the significant information will be recovered.. Synonyms and other nomenclature problems are discussed.. Delay times and time of use are the two most important factors in evaluating an alerting service and are reviewed for some typical services.."
583,"Evaluation of a KWIC Index for Library Literature A librarian attempting to do a literature search currently faces an eight-month gap in access to the literature of his field through Library Literature. In April 1968, librarians made a rare examination of their own literature and considered this gap and other information problems in librarianship. The Albany Conference on the Bibliographic Control of Library Science Literature recommended the establishment of a fast announcement service for library schools (1). A monthly Keyword in Context (KWIC) index serving the whole range of information-oriented professions was a specific proposal which was favored by one conference group to meet the need for current information (2)."
584,"The Practice of Charging Users for Information Services: A State of the Art Report The state of the art literature review disclosed that society has not yet come to the point that paying for library information services is a common thing.. It was also found that a sound basis for determining the costs of the services - let alone charge for them - does not exist: While some data on specific cost for unit operations are available, it is very difficult to compare the data and arrive at meaningful figures.. Nevertheless, there is an indication that large operating centers are becoming concerned with cost to the point that they are cost-according their operations, which would permit them to establish realistic fees for their services.."
585,"Towards a Metascience of Information: Informatology Arguments are advanced to suggest that information and operations on information are phenomena, the principles of which provide the basis for a metascience of information (informatology).. The fundamental character of the phenomena is evidenced in the operations executed during the processing and communication functions.. The role of the metascience is dictated by several factors, namely, the need for a common basis upon which all information- oriented specialized sciences and technologies can be understood and studied, a common framework and language for all scientists and technologists concerned in some form or other with information on one side and man's relationship to the phenomena on the other side.. The content of the postulated metascience of information is circumscribed by a list of specific questions and problems for which the science has to provide answers and solutions.. It is suggested that an educational concept responsive to the needs of metascience of information be developed and implemented.."
586,"An Evaluation of Index Medicus and MEDLARS in the Field of Ophthalmology An evaluation of the performance of Index Medicus and MEDLARS in the field of ophthalmology is presented, using data generated by a separate study.. MEDLARS performance figures gave a screened precision ratio of 54% and a recall ratio of 42%.. Over the same set of questions Index Medicus had a screened precision ratio of 53% and a recall ratio of 46%.. Results for Index Medicus alone over a large set of questions gave a 73% screened precision ratio and a 47% recall ratio.. A random sample of MEDLARS and Index Medicus precision and recall failures showed that most of the Index Medicus recall failures resulted from manual searcher omission.. The major causes of Medlars precision failures were inadequate indexing terminalogy to express concepts and attempts at providing too exhaustive a search.."
587,"Obsolescence of Special Library Periodicals: Sampling Errors and Utility Contours Problems arising in the measurement of the rates of obsolescence of the sets of periodicals taken by special libraries are discussed.. The relatively large errors that arise in sampling the negative exponential distribution are analyzed because they may account for some of the discrepancies reported and because they indicate the need for firmer statistical control of work on obsolescence than has yet been generally appreciated..  When the rate of decline has been satisfactorily established there still remains the problem of deciding how to apply it.. Issues of those periodicals that contribute most productively should be retained for a longer period than those of periodicals that contribute less.. To solve this problem the concept of ""utility contours"" is introduced and exemplified in the design of a p% library..  It is argued that no discarding policy is likely to be generally applicable; every special library must be regarded as a special case. Rather than suggest new measurements, therefore, the paper offers simple graphical techniques that are applicable to any other special case.."
588,"Cardiovascular Serial Literature: Characteristics, Productive Journals, and Abstracting/Indexing Coverage Two groups of journals were identified as potential sources for cardiovascular (c-v) information.. The first group consists of 78 c-v specialty journals, identified as cardiovascular from the title.. These 78 emanate from 24 countries, with about one-half of the specialty journals being published by 28 national and international societies.. The second group of journals is composed of those journals used by grantees of the National Heart Institute (NHI) to publish their findings..  In fiscal 1967, 5,860 papers, appearing in 789 journals, were reported to NHI.. Taking the grantees of NHI as being representative of U.S. c-v researchers, it was found that the specialty journals were not the most quantitatively fertile sources of c-v information - only about 14% of American c-v papers were published there.. The remaining 86% of the literature was widely dispersed throughout 766 nonspecialty c-v journals..  The extent of bibliographic control by the major indexing and abstracting services was found to be more extensive for the top-ranking journals in the NHI sample than for the group of c-v specialty journals.."
589,"Are Titles of Chemical Papers Becoming More Informative? The efficiency of key-work-in-context (KWIC) permuted-title indexes and their numerous variations is highly dependent upon authors' choices of titles for their papers.. Titles are important not only in commercial services, such as Chemical Titles, BASIC, Current Contents, and CA Condensates, but also in scanning primary journals, and in traditional library services, such as bibliographies.. It is generally believed and often stated that titles of chemical papers are becoming more informative as authors become increasingly aware of the importance of titles as ""carriers"" of information.. The present study was undertaken to test whether (1) titles of chemical papers are becoming more informative and (2) whether uninformative titles of chemical papers are being eliminated since the advent of the KWIC index in 1958..  The first hypothesis was tested by comparing titles published in 1948, 1958, and 1968 by the following criteria: (1) a count of substantive words in the title; (2) a count of all word matches between title and 10 leading substantive words selected from the abstract, with and without the use of a thesaurus; and (3) a count of word matches between title and 10 leading substantive words selected from the abstract, with and without the use of a thesaurus.. The second hypothesis was tested by comparing a count of short titles (with 3 or less substantive words) published in 1948, 1958, and 1968..  Results confirm that uninformative titles of chemical papers are being eliminated and that informative titles are becoming more informative since the advent of the KWIC index.."
590,"Toward a Theory of Indexing--II The purpose of this paper is to present the elements of a basis for a theory of information storage and retrieval.. It is believed that this theory can best be formulated in terms of a general theory of indexing.. After stating basic premises and defining essential concepts, the relationship between a theory of indexing and a theory of information storage and retrieval is considered.. The similarities between the indexing process and the general communication process are discussed, and indexing is viewed as an order increasing (i.e., entropy decreasing) operation.. The concept of a theoretical index is developed and contrasted with real-world indexing systems.. The relationship between query formulation, retrieval, and benefit is discussed, and these notions are then related to the human performance variable. It is believed that the ideas presented in this paper provide a useful framework for more detailed investigations into the indexing process.."
591,"The Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Information Retrieval and Dissemination Systems A distinction is made between cost-effectiveness analysis and cost-benefits analysis as applied to information systems; and the relationship between costs, performance, and benefits is discussed.. Some factors influencing the cost-effectiveness of retrieval and dissemination systems are identified.. Various aspects of system operation that are susceptible to cost-effectiveness analysis are discussed, including system coverage, indexing policies and procedures, system vocabulary, searching procedures, and mode of interaction between system and user.. Possible tradeoffs between input and output costs, and the effects of these tradeoffs on cost-effectiveness are presented."
592,"Some Remarks on Elitism in Information and the Invisible College Phenomenon in Science Let me remind you of that famous place in Dickins' Pickwick Papers where we hear of a researcher who composed a copious review on Chinese Metaphysics with the aid only of the Encyclopedia Britannica, which contained absolutely no information on that subject. The technique used, we are told with a nudge of superiority, was to read for metaphysics under the letter M, and for China under the letter C, and to combine the information.  I feel that we may be performing just such a miracle of creative juxtaposition when we assume that Scientific Information is just some special variety of information that contains queer words like Potassium Permanganate, pi r squared, and numbers like 2.71828. We suppose too that Scientific Libraries are just libraries that happen to be full of scientific books, and that the best possible technical librarian would be somebody who had picked up a library qualification and combined it with the appropriate sort of technical qualification. There is, as they used to say, no mixture of ingredients but a genuine chemical compound. I wish to point out two simple facts: there is more to scholarship than the mere cumulation, storage and retrieval of information, and there is about science and technology something intrinsically different from mere scholarship."
593,"Human Factors in the Design of an Interactive Library System ELMS (Experimental Library Management System) is an experimental system for total library management, operating on-line with an IBM 360 through IBM 2260 and 2741 terminals.. The system is designed to handle large amounts of highly variable information which it processes on command, giving on-line computer service for all library operations.. At the same time, it must accommodate the different needs and skills of a broad range of library users, from new patrons to well-trained librarians..  Such a system presents programming problems that will be typical of large, interactive computer systems in the seventies.. This paper discusses ELMS features that facilitate user interaction, and may prove useful in similar systems: techniques for tutoring the user (display format, one-question, one-answer displays, and KWIC indexing); adaptability for the experienced user (command chains and a standard set of four-letter mnemonic codes for higher-level control); minimization of keying (line numbers, one-character mnemonic codes used with procedures, and use of default conditions); performance of clerical tasks by exception notification; and collection of operational statistics to help improve the system.."
594,"On-Line Systems: Promise and Pitfalls Interactive systems, in existence for nearly 15 years, are becoming increasingly important, both for information retrieval and library support operations.. The virtues of these systems are speed, intimacy, and - if time-sharing is involved - economy.. The major problems are the cost of the large computers and files necessary for bibliographic data, the still- high cost of communications, and the generally poor design of the user- system interfaces.. The desirable features of on-line retrieval interfaces are only now being defined and tested in a systematic way, e.g., by the National Library of Medicine in its AIM-TWX nationwide experimental retrieval service.. System implementers must, in addition to engineering the right capabilities into on-line systems, also make a careful, concerted effort to engineer user acceptance.. Common pitfalls here include overselling system capabilities and failure to take into account the social context around the user terminal.. The major national problem is to avoid or limit wasteful and expensive duplication in providing nationwide search access to the hundreds of public and private data bases that will be readily available during the next few years.. We do not need technological breakthroughs to exploit the potential of on-line systems, but we do need breakthroughs in organizing for technological change.."
595,"Selected Results From An Inquiry Into Testing of Information Retrieval Systems A variety of aspects related to testing of retrieval systems were examined.. A model of a retrieval system, together with a set of measures and a methodology for performance testing were developed.. In the main experiment the effect on performance of the following variables was tested: sources of indexing, indexing languages, coding schemes, question analyses, search strategies and formats of output.. In addition, a series of separate experiments was carried out to investigate the problems of controls in experimentation with IR systems.. The main conclusions: the human factor appears to be the main variable in all components of an IR system; length of indexes affects performance considerably more than indexing languages; question analyses and search strategies to affect performance to a great extent - as much, if not more than indexing.. Retrieval systems seem to be able to perform at present only on a general level, failing to be at the same time comprehensive and specific.. It seems that testing of total IR systems controlling and monitoring all factors (environmental and systems-related) is not possible at present.."
596,"What Makes An Automatic Keyword Classification Effective? Though the idea of constructing a keyword classification for retrieval purposes automatically is not a new one, comparatively few systematic experiments have been carried out in this area; and while many suggestions have been put forward, not enough is known about the behaviour of automatic keyword classifications, and hence about the properties such classifications should have and the ways they should be used.. In previous experiments we showed that some forms of classification could give good results, and this paper describes a further series of tests designed to examine this sort of classification in more detail, with a view to establishing the optimum forms of classification and procedures for using them in different retrieval situations.. These tests demonstrate that further improvements in performance over that for unclassified keywords can be obtained, and that definite conclusions can be drawn about the correct approach to classification for collections like the test one: the best results are given when grouping is confined to strongly connected, nonfrequent keywords, when the classification is used to provide additional rather than alternative indexing terms, particularly for requests, and when matching is controlled by keyword frequency.."
597,"Machine-Assisted Approach to General Reference Materials A collection of 144 general reference works was analyzed and encoded according to 254 identifiable characteristics of services and contained data, comprising an ""approach language"" expressing search parametrs.. In response to a request submitted at on-line terminal, the ""REFSEARCH"" system retrieves the names of those works who profiles meet or exceed the specification.. The background and rationale of the system is discussed, its current use in the School of Librarianship, University of California, and its potential for direct service to library patrons.."
598,"Curricula in Information Science: Analysis and Development The Curriculum Committee of the Special Interest Group/Education Information Science of ASIS is charged with the responsibility for determining the scope and characteristics of information science programs in the US and Canada in terms of Curriculum developments and course offerings. To fulfill this responsibility, questionnaires were developed to elicit reliable information concerning courses being offered relating to information storage and retrieval, information science and/or documentation. The data requested included course levels, pre- and post-requisite courses, textbooks used, topics covered, frequency with which offered, etc.  Responses were received from 45 schools, providing information about 185 courses and 242 topics. Using several methods of clustering the data, it was difficult to arrive at firm results, because of the diversity and scatter of the topics included in this field. It was therefore decided to hold a workshop of experts which would examine the validity of the questionnaire results.  This workshop, using the Delphi technique to arrive at consensus, was held at the University of Pittsburgh on September 21-23, 1970. Sixteen specialists in the field representing universities industry and government were brought together to participate. Consensus was reached in identifying nine factors which contribute to the curriculum in information science and seven courses which constitute the core for the Master's program. The topics to be included in each of these courses were also isolated."
599,"On the Evaluation of Information Science The emergence and development of information science within its wider disciplinary framework is interpreted.. Information science is approached as one of a modern generation of communication or behavioral disciplines which emerged almost simultaneously around World War II.. Consequently, an attempt is made to discern the evolution of relationship between information science and other generation disciplines.. The internal development of information science is first sketched.. Second, possible relationship and roles of information science within a potentially emergent suprasystem of knowledge are discussed.."
600,"Compound Words: A Problem in Post-Coordinate Retrieval Systems Compound words cause some difficulty in post-coordinate indexing systems: if too many are fractured, or the wrong categories are selected for fracturing, noise will be produced at unacceptable levels on retrieval.. Various prior suggestions for handling compound terms are examined which include those for pre-coordinated or rotated, indexes..  The syntactic origins are also explored and it is found that many compound words hinge on a prepositional relationship between the components, and that this relationship can be applied to decision making.. Other compound words are in effect abbreviated statements from longer phrases, while some are influenced by the presence of a verb-like form..  These syntactic influences, together with some of the philosophy from earlier studies - especially that of the 'force' required to fracture a term, have been combined to produce a set of rules which have been employed at the National Rubber Producers' Research Association (NRPRA) for over two years.. These have greatly eased decision making and have enabled the thesaural vocabulary to be made more consistent..  It is also suggested that the rules have some bearing on the application of roles especially if these are employed on a pre-coordinate basis.."
601,"Some Implications of Automatic Recognition of Bibliographic Elements A theoretical approach to the problem of converting printed bibliographic records to machine readable form is developed based on principles of system analysis.. Experience from several recent projects conducted by the Institute of Library Research, University of California, are used to illustrate how this theoretical approach is currently being tested prior to implementation in a large scale conversion project.."
602,"Informal Communication Among Scientists in Sleep Research At the frontiers of an active area of science, social structure based upon communication is demonstrated.. Using sociometric techniques, an informal communication network was identified which included 73% of the scientists.. Within the network was a core group of scientists who were the focus of a disproportionately large number of contacts and who were differentiated from others by greater productivity, higher citation record and wider readership.. Information transferred to these scientists is so situated that it could be transmitted to 95% of the network scientists through one intermediary scientist or less.."
603,"The Efficiency of MEDLARS Titles for Retrieval Previous research has indicated that the titles rather than index terms would, in the standard MEDLARS system, gave lower Recall but higher Precision.. A title searching technique is described which allows the number of references retrieved to be fixed before a search commences.. With this technique the greater applicability of title-terms offsets their relative paucity.. The title-searching technique is tested using queries put to MEDLARS.. These queries were not specially solicited for the test.. Title searching is compared with the standard MEDLARS index term search and with an index term search with fixed output size.. For equal output sizes, Title searching retrieves 4 relevant references for every 5 retrieved by index term searching.. Thus the relative retrieval efficiency of Title and Index terms is so close that the choice of one method or the other must be primarily on economic grounds.."
604,"Comparison of Document Data Bases This paper presents a detailed analysis of the content and format of seven machine-readable bibliographic data bases: Chemical Abstract Service Condensates, Chemical and Biological Activities, and Polymer Science and Technology, Biosciences Information Service's BA Previews including Biological Abstracts and BioReseach Index, Institute for Science Information Source Tape, and Engineering Index COMPENDEX..  Selected issue test tapes of each data base were printed and checked for the types of data that were contained in the issue and the methods in which the data were formatted.. This paper compared the physical formats of the tapes and describes the varied treatments given to such data elements as authors, titles, abstracts, etc.. Comparison of data bases requires common use of terms.. All terms are defined at the beginning of the paper..  The authors found great discrepancies in the presentation of essentially similar bibliographic data, and they offer some suggestions for mitigating the discrepancies by use of standards.."
605,"Citations, References and the Growth of Scientific Literature: A Model of Dynamic Interaction A mathematical model is presented which explains the observed exponential growth rates of citations and references in a scientific discipline.. The independent variables are the growth rate of the number of articles published and the decay rate of citation of old literature.. It is shown how the parameters of the model can be estimated.."
606,"Interface Design for An Interactive Information Retrieval System: A Literature Survey and a Research System Description This article focuses on the human interaction characteristics of an information retrieval system, suggests some design considerations to improve man-machine cooperation, and describes a research system at Stanford that is exploring some of these techniques..  Librarians can only be of limited assistance in helping the naive user formulate an unstructured feeling in his mind into an appropriate search query that maps into the retrieval system.. Consequently, the process of query formulation by the user, interactively with the information available in te system, remains one of the principal problems in information retrieval today..  In an attempt to solve this problem by improving the interface communication between man and the computer, we have pursued the objective of displaying hierarchically structured index trees on a CRT in a decision tree format permitting the user merely to point (with a light pen) at alternatives which seem most appropriate to him.. Using his passive rather than his active vocabulary expands his interaction vocabulary by at least an order of magnitude.. Moreover, a hierarchically displayed index is a modified thesaurus, and may be augmented by adding lateral links to provide semantic assistance to the user.. A hierarchical structure was chosen because it seems to replicate the structure of cognitive thought processes most closely, thus allowing the simplest, most direct transfer of the man's problem into the structure and vocabulary of the system.."
607,"Improving a Field-based ""Eric-Like"" Information System This is a period for rapid growth in information systems for the sciences and professions. Information centers are springing up across the country. Federal agencies and private groups are both collaborating and competing to establish comprehensive systems.  Changing the library's name to ""information center"" is more than linguistic faddism. New, active roles subordinate the library's traditional, passive role as a preserver and codifier of knowledge. ""Information center"" bears analogy to ""economic center"" and ""transportation center."" Like these centers, its significance is in transaction. The significance of a transportation center lies in routes to other centers. The significance of an information center lies in communication lines to knowledge producers and knowledge users. Information centers are judged by their information ""throughput,"" not by their ""holdings."""
608,"A new comparison Between Conventional Indexing (MEDLARS) and Automatic Text Processing (SMART) A new testing process is described designed to compare conventional retrieval (MEDLARS) and automatic text analysis methods (SMART).. The results obtained with a collection of documents chosen independently of either SMART or MEDLARS indicate that a simple automatic extraction of keywords from document abstracts produces a 30 to 40 percent loss compared with MEDLARS indexing.. A replacement of the unranked Boolean searches used in MEDLARS by the standard ranked output normally provided by SMART reduces the loss to between 15 and 20 percent.. When automatically generated word control list or a thesaurus is used as part of the SMART analysis, the results are comparable in effectiveness to those obtained by the intellectual MEDLARS indexing.. Finally, the incorporation of user feedback procedures into SMART furnishes an improvement over the normal MEDLARS output of 15 to 30 percent..   One concludes again that no technical justification exists for maintaining controlled, manual indexing in operational retrieval environments.."
609,"Report on the Evaluation of an Experimental Computer-Based Current-Awareness Service for Chemists A selected sample of U.K. University, industrial and Government scientists were given a current-awareness service for 18 months, in order to investigate the practicability and problems of such a service.. Six hundred profiles were run, using the natural-language data bases Chemical Titles and Chemical-Biological Activities produced by Chemical Abstracts Service..  Precision and recall were measured, and correlations between profile performance and such factors as subject area and profile logic were investigated statistically.. Precision and recall failures were analyzed and various improvements to the system were suggested as a consequence..  It was concluded that a viable computerized current-awareness service based on searching natural language could be created.."
610,"The Development of a Semantic Differential to Assess Users' Attitudes Towards An On-line Interactive Reference Retrieval System A semantic differential (SD) is a commonly used instrument which can be used to reliably measure attitude toward a variety of objects or concepts.. Each SD consists of a series of bipolar adjective scales on which a respondent reacts, in relation to the object or concept of interest.. To interpret completed SDs, it simplifies the procedures and aids in the development of theory if the adjective scales are grouped into one or more independent clusters.. The primary purpose of this study was to identify those clusters (or dimensions) applied by a user of an on-line user-oriented reference retrieval system when he reacts toward such a system..  Seventy-one who used or were familiar with a working on-line reference retrieval system completed a packet of 20 SDs, each consisting of the same 19 adjective scales.. The correlations among the scales were factor analyzed.. Three independent dimensions were identified.. Factor I was labeled ""evaluative-specific"" and accounted for over 23% of the total variance.. Factor II was called ""desirability""; it accounted for over 17% of the total variance.. And, Factor III, entitled ""enormity"" accounted for over 10% of the total variance.. Another analysis showed the factor structure to be highly reliable.. Therefore, if the derived three dimensional structure underlies users' attitudes toward a more general class of retrieval systems, then undimensional or unstructured system evaluation of users' attitudes will be simplistic and possibly misleading..  In order to construct a working semantic differential, 10 adjective scales were identified which best represented the three dimensions.. Brief instructions are included which outline how to use this SD.. The discussion is mainly concerned with the obtained factor structure and the need for a predicative replication of the study.."
611,"What Information Dissemination Studies Imply Concerning the Design of On-Line Reference Retrieval Systems* The use of an on-line computer system for locating bibliographic citations has been hailed as an important innovation for coping with the ""information explosion.."" However, on-line reference retrieval is only one element in a large social system of information dissemination.. To have a widespread impact, an on-line system must compete successfully with a multitude of other sources of references.. This paper reviews studies of information dissemination as a basis for determining how on-line retrieval can best compete. It recommends the functional groups for whom an on-line system should be designed and the forms of written media that should be included in the system's initial data base.. Finally, it presents criteria the system should satisfy to be as widely used and as comprehensive as other reference retrieval methods.."
612,"Interactive Search of Bibliographic Data Bases in an Academic Environment A surprising difference is found in the acceptance of on-line bibliographic search between university research workers and students in the classroom.. The typical research worker, even after careful preparation and individual help, abandons the on-line system in favor of more traditional searching techniques.. The student and the seminar participant, on the other hand, take to this new tool with enthusiasm and profit.. Bibliographic data bases in physics, astronomy and urban systems are available to users through on-line access to the Remote Information Query System (RIQS).. Examples of introductory on-line sessions are presented and a report of one of the professors participating is included.."
613,"Citation Patterns fo the Cardiovascular Serial Literature In an attempt to further amplify the characteristics of the cardiovascular serial literature, citation patterns were studied.. As previously shown, one-third of the 5,860 papers from the National Heart Institute grantees for 1967 appeared within 13 journals (3).. After the exclusion of the abstract journals, the remaining journals were used to obtain a basic pool of 300 cardiovascular related articles.. Science Citation Index was used to gather statistics relative to citing author, journal and year.. The 300 articles in the basic pool were cited a total of 2,545 times during this four-year period (1967-1970).. The figures concerning citation rate by year serve to uphold the idea that journal citation reaches a peak during the third year after publication.. Also some definite patterns of self-citation were noted.. It was found that, when analyzed on the basis of first author, 15 percent of the 2,545 citations were self-citations.. The ten basic journals tend to be cited mostly within themselves; one-third of the citations were found in these journals.. Although the citations were found throughout 349 journals, indicating an extensive scatter, a relatively high percentage of papers were found in few journals.."
614,"The Use Patterns of Physics Journals in a Large Academic Research Library The purpose of this investigation was to reveal the use of patterns of the physics journals in the M.I.T. Science Library.. The findings are based upon an analysis of actual use data recorded from all volumes and issues left by library users on study tables and on trucks in the photocopy area from March 15 to June 31, 1971.. The Science Library contains some 220 physics journals.. The study reveals that only 138 journals (62.7%) were used even once during the 3 1/2-month interval.. A core of 49 journals supplies 90% of use, and these items would cost 51.1% of the total single subscription costs of the 138 used titles: 52.3% of use occurs in journal volumes less than 6 years old.. English is the most used language of physics journals and the English journals account for 95.3% of use.. American journals, 57.2% of which are published by the American Institute of Physics, supply 59.4% of the total use.."
615,"A Cost Model for Evaluating Information Retrieval Systems This paper develops a mathematical model for use in studying how to minimize the cost of operating a mechanized retrieval system.. Through the use of cost analysis, the model provides a method for comparative evaluation between information retrieval systems.. The cost model divides the costs of a retrieval system into two components: system costs and user costs.. In addition, it suggests that a trade off exists between the performance level of the system and the combination of user and systems time that is expended in working with the system.. This minimizes the total cost of operating the system.. The allocation is done for a given performance level and for a given cost per unit of user and system time.."
616,"A Bibliometric Analysis of Certain Information Science Literature Several bibliometric techniques previously applied to separate scientific literatures were used together in the analysis of a single corpus of journal articles relating to information science.. Techniques included are (a) Bradford analysis, (b) epidemic analysis, (c) identification of research front, and (d) bibliographic coupling.. Similar analysis was made of writings cited by the main corpus articles, and of the literature which in turn cites the main corpus.. Results were analyzed in terms of structure and processes observable in patterns of authorship, publication, and citation.. Their significance is discussed with potential application of the method to the solution of problems in the management of large research libraries.."
617,"On-Line Serials Control System in a Large Biomedical Library; 1) Description of the System An on-line serials control system with particular emphasis on storage and maintenance concepts is described.. The system, operational since January, 1971, has evolved from a former batch card system and remains completely compatible with it.. The system allows real-time display and updating of all elements of the file.. Consequently all check-in, bindery, and claims operations, as well as new entries and data field changes are accomplished on a real-time basis.. All programs are in PL/1.. Required equipment is an IBM time-shared facility with 100 K memory available for the applications programs, and IBM 2260 display units..  This article is the first of three.. The second is concerned with an analysis of inverted file retrieval features and the third compares the operation of the on-line with the batch system, comparable manual operations, and discusses costs.."
618,"Interrelationships of Scientific Journals A series of models of the interrelationship of scientific journals has been developed from the cross citing amongst 275 journals in mathematics, physics, chemistry, biochemistry, and biology..   The data source was the Journal Citation Index (JCI), a file derived from the Science Citation Index.. The JCI consists of a journal by journal tabulation of citings to and from each journal in the index.. A large amount of consistency was found between the citing characteristics of the journals in the different scientific fields, with quite clear boundaries between fields and a few well known cross disciplinary journals as cross field information links.. The separate disciplines appear to relate to each other in an orderly manner, with a natural sequence: mathematics --> physics --> chemistry --> biochemistry --> biology.. Within disciplines the journals form fully transitive hierarchies with very few relational conflicts.."
619,"Managing An Uncontrolled Vocabulary Ex Post Facto Initiated as an experiment, supported by the Division of Medicinal Chemistry of Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, the operational retrospective retrieval service offered by BIOSIS, now in its eighth year, exploits a file created essentially without vocabulary control.. The file comprises some 40 million index access points to 1.87 million references in research biology announced in Biological Abstracts and BioResearch Index since September 1959.. A pragmatic program of file building criteria has been pursued, originally with modest support from the Office of Science Information Service of the National Science Foundation, which has provided improved retrieval and an annual summary of the vocabulary of the literature available to anyone interested (1).."
620,On-Line Serials Control System on a Large Biomedical Library Part II. Evaluation of Retrieval Features The on-line serials control system in use at UCLA Biomedical Library utilizes an inverted file for its primary technique.. The correct title is reached with a entry about 80% of the time by using average of three title words.. A detailed profile of title structure and search scheme is given.. The major determinants of the scheme are evaluated on a performance and cost basis..
621,"Dialectical Inquiring Systems: A New Methodology for Information Science A taxonomy for modeling information systems is presented.. The taxonomy derives from the history of modern epistemology.. Epistemology is used as a prescriptive modeling basis because (1) the fundamental problems of epistemology are concerned with information, and (2), because the history of epistemology identifies any archetypal ways that men have conceived of information and of models..  It is shown how the different models of epistemology can be made scientifically operational through the use of a special kind of systems analysis..  Finally, the results of a preliminary experiment based on one of the models are presented in the form of prescriptive rules for the design of future experiments.."
622,"Overlap Among the Journal Articles Selected for Coverage by BIOSIS, CAS, and Ei Of 14,592 primary journals being collectively monitored by the BioSciences Information Service of Biological Abstracts (BIOSIS), the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS), and Engineering Index, Inc. (Ei) on 1 May 1970, only 4081 were being monitored by two or more of the services..  The extent to which all three or any two of these services select the same journal article for coverage was determined by examining each service's selection records for the July 1969-June 1970 issues of these 4081 overlap journals.. The maximum possible journal article overlap among BIOSIS, CAS and Ei was found to be 822 articles and between BIOSIS and Ei, 1428 articles.. The journal article overlap between BIOSIS and CAS was found to be 48,856 articles and between CAS and Ei, 21,583 articles.."
623,"Cost Effectiveness of Current Awareness Sources in the Pharmaceutical Industry In a previous paper from The Wellcome Foundation (Scott et al., 1971) a technique was described for measuring the usefulness of a commercial data base by comparing the choice of papers and of indexing terms to those chosen as relevant to the organization.. In this paper we are comparing the cost effectiveness of several commercial data bases, journal scanning by information scientists, and the impact of private communication.."
624,"Clinician Search for Information The use of a medical library by members of the faculty of a medical school was studied by questionnaire in an effort to ascertain the part the library played, among channels of communication, in work-related information searches.. The study described the population of users and the kinds of sources they utilized in an information search, in an effort to identify the factors influencing their choice of kinds of sources and leading to the possibility of predicting use of kinds of source once the characteristics of the users were known.. It brought out a high use of sources which are accessible and easy to use.. The tabulations show the importance of co-workers in informal communication.. Low delegation of documentation tasks to libraries was apparent.. The main user of the library studied was a clinician in the area of internal medicine who used journal articles about diseases for information to use in the treatment of his patients.. The recommendations were made that journals should be shelved accessibly, with Index Medicus nearby.. Books might be shelved less accessibly.. Telephone access to the library is of major importance as is the provision of adequate photocopying facilities.."
625,"On Selecting a Measure of Retrieval Effectiveness It is argued that a user's subjective evaluation of the personal utility of a retrieval system's output to him, if it could be properly quantified, would be a near-ideal measure of retrieval effectiveness.. A hypothetical methodology is presented for measuring this utility by means of an elicitation procedure.. Because the hypothetical methodology is impractical, compromise methods are outlined and their underlying simplifying assumptions are discussed.. The more plausible the simplifying assumptions on which a performance measure is based, the better the measure.. This, along with evidence gleaned from 'validation experiments' of a certain kind, is suggested as a criterion for selecting or deriving the best measure of effectiveness to use under given test conditions.."
626,"The User Interface for Interactive Bibliographic Searching: An Analysis of the Attitudes of Nineteen Information Scientists Since little substantiated evidence exists concerning the features that should of should not be included in the man-machine interface of interactive bibliographic search and retrieval (IBSR) systems, an informal survey tapping the opinions of scientists active in this research area was conducted.. An analysis of the responses showed a significant level of agreement concerning interface features.."
627,"Theoretical Foundations of Thesaurus-Construction and Some Methodological Considerations for Thesaurus-Updating It was argued that the present-day thesaurus-construction and maintenance rules and conventions are not theoretically based.. For this reason, there are few rules and conventions for updating a thesaurus.. Consequently, most of the thesauri adopted by operating information storage and retrieval systems are not systematically updated.. In order to investigate how thesauri are actually updated, a survey was conducted.. The working hypothesis was that the communication process between authors and readers is linear in nature (""one-way"" communication allowing no reciprocal feedback) if a thesaurus utilized in a system is not updated by both indexers and question negotiators.. Findings show that thesauri viewed from the communications point of view do not allow a cybernetic process of communication (""both-way"" communication).. The survey indicated that the present practice of updating thesauri is largely done by indexers alone.. No attempt was made to develop a theory of thesaurus construction and updating.. It was, however, argued that such a theory, if developed, should at least account for the concepts of meaning and knowledge.. Within this theoretical framework, two techniques are suggested to be considered for the systematic updating of a thesaurus.."
628,"The Environment of Classification: The Concept of Mutual Exclusivity It has been suggested that information science is still of the stage of alchemy: if this is so then mutual exclusivity must form its philosopher's stone.. Mutual exclusivity appears to be alien to the observable universe: that this is so is displayed through a series of examples.. Some of these relate to everyday things like trees, beaches and man himself, whilst others relate to more obscure phenomena like continental drift and black holes.. The act of observation is also considered as this has a considerable bearing on the problem..  Nevertheless, mutual exclusivity must form part of man's mental powers and this has found expression in the relatively exclusive series of symbols used in communication.. The dangers of exclusive thinking in relation to environmental problems are considered, and this results in a paradox which is probably unresolvable.. Finally, it is observed that out-standing genius appears to pay scant regard to existing classifications and is more likely to be involved in an integrated approach to problems.."
629,"Promotion of Information Services: An Evaluation of Alternative Approaches This article deals with the promotion of information services, specifically the formation and subsequent evaluation of different promotional programs for selective dissemination of information (SDI) services provided by the Mechanized Information Center (MIC) at the Ohio State University.. Three programs -- opinion leadership, ""blitz,"" and telephone solicitation -- were developed.. Data were collected to show, for each of the programs:  (1) the level of market penetration achieved; (2) the level of user satisfaction generated from the service; (3) the effect in terms of influence, of the various media employed; and (4) cost effectiveness.. Data analysis focused on a determination of the most effective methods to promote SDI services.."
630,"A Novel Philosophy for the Design of Information Storage and Retrieval Systems Appropriate for the '70's The philosophy of a systems approach to the design of information storage and retrieval systems is suggested in which the computer is recognized in its proper perspective as a powerful and effective alternative tool.. This philosophy is in contrast to a prevalent philosophy of the '60's in which many information systems designers touted the computer as the answer to all information storage and retrieval situations.. Important principles of information system design incorporated within the framework of the novel philosophy for the '70's are presented.. These are: the performance of users' needs studies by the representative small group technique; the analysis of users' needs including their rank ordering by priority; the selection and adaptation for a specific application of a suitable existent information storage and retrieval system from those available; the involvement of potential users in the system design by establishing a model with which they can interact and provide feedback; and the final design of a cost-effective system.. A number of pitfalls arising from earlier design methodologies are pointed out, and the avoidance of these pitfalls by adopting a true systems approach is discussed.."
631,"A General Statistical Model for Estimating Future Demand Levels of Data-Base Utilization Within an Information Retrieval Organization A statistical model for characterizing the growth patterns of data base utilization and for estimating future utilization levels of demand has been developed for information retrieval organizations.. The model developed is y = b( 1 - e(**-at) ) where y is the number of users of a data base at time t, and a and b are parameters to be estimated.. Illustrations of the model applied to a typical information retrieval organization are given and discussed.."
632,"Co-citation in the Scientific Literature: A New Measure of the Relationship Between Two Documents A new form of document coupling called co-citation is defined as the frequency with which two documents are cited together.. The co-citation frequency of two scientific papers can be determined by comparing lists of citing documents in the Science Citation Index and counting identical entries.. Networks of co-cited papers can be generated for specific scientific specialties, and an example is drawn from the literature of particle physics.. Co-citation patterns are found to differ significantly from bibliographic coupling patterns, but to agree generally with patterns of direct citation.. Clusters of co-cited papers provide a new way to study the specialty structure of science.. They may provide a new approach to indexing and to the creation of SDI profiles.."
633,"Use of an Automatic Text Analyzer in Preparation of SDI Profiles The conventional method of preparing SDI (Selective Dissemination of Information) profiles often necessitates detailed interview sessions between the client and one or more information scientists.. This research shows that by submitting samples of the client's recent professional reading material to automatic text analysis, SDI profiles can be prepared that result in significantly higher initial recall scores than do those prepared by conventional techniques; relevance scores are not significantly different.."
634,"On Selecting A Measure of Retrieval Effectiveness Part II. Implementation of the Philosophy It was argued in Part I (see JASIS, March-April 1973 p. 87) that the best way to evaluate a retrieval system is, in principle at least, to elicit subjective estimates of the system's utility to its users, quantified in terms of the numbers of utilities (e.g. dollars) they would have been willing to give up in exchange for the privilege of using the system; and a naive methodology was outlined for evaluating retrieval systems on this basis.. But the impracticality of the naive evaluation procedure as it stands raises the questions:	How can one decide which practical measure is likely to yield results most closely resembling those of the naive methodology? And how can one tell whether the resemblance is close enough to make applying the measure worth while? In the present paper two kinds of solution to these problems are taken up.. The first answers the questions in terms of the reasonableness of the simplifying assumptions needed to get from the naive measure to the proposed substitute.. The second answers it by experimentation.."
635,"Clustering of Scientific Journals A cluster analysis procedure is described in which 188 journals in the discipline of physics, chemistry and molecular biology are grouped into clusters.. Most of the clusters are easily identified as subdisciplinary subject areas.. The data source was the cross citing amongst the journals derived from the Journal Citation Index (JCI), a file derived in turn from the Science Citation Index (SCI).. The JCI consists of journal by journal tabulation of citings to and from each journal processed in the SCI.. Two-step citation maps linking the clusters are presented for each discipline.. Within the disciplines the clusters of journals form fully transitive hierarchies with very few relational conflicts.."
636,"Text Searching Retrieval of Answer-Sentences and Other Answer-Passages Some new text searching retrieval techniques are described which retrieve not documents but sentences from documents and sometimes (on occasions determined by the computer) multi-sentence sequences.. Since the goal of the techniques is retrieval of answer-providing documents, ""answer-passages"" are retrieved.. An ""answer-passage"" is a passage which is either answer-providing or ""answer-indicative,"" i.e., it permits inferring that the document containing it is answer-providing.. In most cases answer-sentences, i.e., single-sentence answer-passages, are retrieved.. This has great advantages for screening retrieval output..  Two new automatic procedures for measuring closeness of relation between clue words in a sentence are described.. One approximates syntactic closeness by counting the number of intervening ""syntactic joints"" (roughly speaking, prepositions, conjunctions and punctuation marks) between successive clue words.. The other measure uses word proximity in a new way.. The two measures perform about equally well..  The computer uses ""enclosure"" and ""connector words"" for determining when a multi-sentence passage should be retrieved.. However, no procedure was found in this study for retrieving multi-paragraph answer-passages, which were the only answer-passages occurring in 6% of the papers..  In a test of the techniques they failed to retrieve two answer-providing documents (7% of those to be retrieved) because of one multi-paragraph answer-passage and one complete failure of clue word selection.. For the other answer-providing documents they retrieved at all recall levels with greater precision than SMART, which has produced the best previously reported recall-precision results..  The retrieval questions (mostly from real users) and documents used in this study were from the field of information science.. The results of the study are surprisingly good for retrieval in such a ""soft science,"" and it is reasonable to hope that in less ""soft"" sciences and technologies the techniques described will work even better.. On this basis a dissemination and retrieval system of the near future is predicted.."
637,"Breaking the Communication barrier Between Searcher and Literature File: An Interactive Guide The challenges of design of programming systems, file organization and manipulation, and user-oriented query languages have held the spotlight in the development of data processing support to systems for retrieval of scientific literature.. At BIOSIS, development of such a system from the pragmatic viewpoint of providing viable self-supporting retrieval service from a data base of more than two million references has resulted in focusing attention on supporting the formulation of the information need into an effective computer search specification.. Developed under CPS and now implemented under CICS, the program claims no novelty of structure or technique, but constitutes an innovation in application and goal with primary emphasis on accommodating the behavior of a user not previously knowledgeable about the structure, indexing language, and detailed content of a machine based references file.."
638,"Densities of Use, and Absence of Obsolescence, in Physics Journals at M I T Chen's data for the raw frequency of use of 138 physics journals in the science library at M I T are re-examined and converted to densities of use-per-meter of shelf.. Other units of size for obtaining densities, and their measurement are discussed.. There is no evidence for synchronous obsolescence in the 1955 to 1968 volumes of these journals: instead there is some statistically significant evidence of greater density of use with greater age.. Similar evidence elsewhere is cited.. The ranking order for heaviness of use is also radically altered by converting raw frequencies to densities of use..   It is suggested that, for comparing the relative values of different journals, or age groups, in library use or citation studies, analyses of raw frequencies are valueless, and indeed potentially dangerously misleading, until they are converted to allow for the numbers of available items in each group examined.."
639,"Costs and Effectiveness in the Evolution of an Information System: A Case Study With budget constraints, the problems of cost and effectiveness have advanced to the top of priority list of all information services managers.. Determining and monitoring effectiveness should be cost-effective also..  The author traces the cost-effectiveness problems back to the genesis of an information system.. Performance parameters and their shifting in the desired direction are briefly discussed.. The monthly statement is intended to assist a manager in budgeting and planning and it should also alert him to any irregularities in costs and effectiveness, either in time or among individual services.. If adopted more widely it could even serve as a means of comparison between centers if due consideration is given to varying conditions.."
640,"The Scientific Premises of Information Science Throughout my years of work as an information scientist I have been plagued by a personal and professional sense of doubt with respect to the field.. A central theme of every conference that I have attended related to: ""What is information science?"" Or ""Is information science a science?"" In this paper I hope to take these questions head on.. I must begin by saying that I do take information science seriously as a science.. I see it as the quest for understanding of the nature of information and man's interaction with it.. That we lack so much in this quest for understanding is the greatest challenge of the science..  I intend to explore the tradition, or world view, bearing on the scientific study of information.. The currently prevalent world view is the scientific tradition which extends from the Enlightenment to the present.. I also intend to look critically at what I perceive to be te premises underlying most of our current efforts to understand the phenomenon of information.. The criticism will by necessity be speculative.. I intend to stick my neck out, not because I can prove my assertions, but because I believe these ideas must be discussed.."
641,"Representation of Concept Relations Using the TOSAR System of the IDC: Treatise III on Information Retrieval Theory Successful information retrieval from a mechanized file is heavily dependent on the fidelity of the representation of concepts in the particular language of the system and on the predictability of this representation..   If an index language is employed, predictability is guaranteed and the quality of the retrieval is predominantly governed by the fidelity of the representation, i.e., by the extent to which conceptual distortion of the concepts to be represented can be avoided.. The various index languages vary widely with respect to their fidelity.. Differences in their performance are correspondingly great..  The lack of fidelity in most of the present day indexing languages is due mainly to insufficient representation of the relationships among concepts.. We describe a new graphical method of storing and retrieving concept relations of various kinds.. The points of such a graph are occupied by concepts, and the connecting lines between these points represent concept relations.. In a special field of chemistry, these graphs also serve as a kind of presentation of the essentials of a document to the reader that is much more lucid than a natural language text.."
642,"Making On-Line Search Available in an Industrial Research Environment On-line interactive searching of several information bases through several service operators was introduced in an industrial research environment.. Thorough knowledge of the information base and its structure in the search system is a major factor of successful searching, and differences among search systems do not present serious barriers.. This new technique was most effectively used when the information specialist and the scientist searched as a team.. On-line searching is now an established search tool at Exxon Research and Engineering Company.."
643,"A Theory of Term Importance in Automatic Text Analysis A good deal of work has been done over the years in an attempt to use statistical or probabilistic techniques as a basis of automatic indexing and content analysis..   Unfortunately, many of these methods are lacking in effectiveness, and the more refined procedures are computationally unattractive..  A new technique, known as discrimination value analysis, ranks the text words in accordance with how much they are able to discriminate the documents of a collection from each other; that is, the value of a term depends on how much the average separation between individual documents changes when the given term is assigned for content identification.. The best words are those which achieve the greatest separation..   The discrimination value analysis is computationally simple, and it assigns a specific role in content analysis to single words, juxtaposed words and phrases, and word groups or thesaurus categories.. Experimental results are given showing the effectiveness of the technique.."
644,"A Decision Theoretic Foundation for Indexing The indexing of a document is among the most crucial steps in preparing that document for retrieval.. The adequacy of the indexing determines the ability of the system to respond to patron requests.. This paper discusses this process, and document retrieval in general, on the basis of formal decision theory.. The basic theoretical approach taken is illustrated by means of a model of word occurrences in documents in the context of a model information system; both models are fully defined in this paper.. Though the main purpose of this paper is to provide insights into a very complex process, formulae are developed that may prove to be of value for an automated operating system..The paper concludes with an interpretation of recall and precision curves as seen from the point of view of decision theory.."
645,"Creation and Use of Citation Data Bases: A Modest Proposal Improvement in the production and use of citations to research literature calls for coordination of activities by a number of abstracting and indexing services.. The Ohio College Library Center (OCLC) has developed a cost-effective on-line shared cataloging system, now in widespread use by U.S. libraries.. It could readily serve as a pattern for a system to create and share descriptive indexing on-line.. A proposed system is outlined, possible developers are noted, and further action is urged.."
646,"Performing Evaluation Studies in Information Science This paper considers conceptual and methodological components of information science evaluation studies.. The paper discusses the judgmental process of evaluation and the scientific nature of evaluation study in the context of purpose statements; criteria; the selection of variables and data collection and analysis techniques; and requirements of validity, reproducibility and reliability.. Industrial value analysis/engineering methodology is described and related to assessments of information products and services.. The state-of-the-art of evaluation study in information science is analyzed with respect to 1.the scope of evaluation studies; 2. the use of laboratory-type environments; 3. the use of surrogate judges; 4. selection of variables; 5. frequency of study; and 6. comparabilty of study results.. Evaluation study is seen as essential to the management of information centers and systems and as having approachable growth potential.."
647,Optimal Resource Allocation in Library Systems A procedure is developed for optimal allocation of resources among the many processes of a library system.. Queueing theory is used to model processes as either waiting or balking processes.. The optimal allocation of resources to these processes is defined as that which maximizes the expected value of the decision-maker's utility function.. An application of the procedure to a specific library system is discussed..
648,"User Training for On-Line Information Retrieval Systems The early 1970's have clearly shown a trend toward the use of on-line systems as the ideal medium for information retrieval.. The emphasis placed on direct access by the practitioners in the field, rather than delegated searches through information specialists, leads to the growing need for an efficient design in training transient user groups.. Printed manuals, live help, audiovisual presentations and on-line instructions have all been used with varying degrees of success.. The author contends that the use of computer-assisted instruction in conjunction with the on-line information retrieval system is the most promising form of instruction in that the medium itself, as well as the message may be used to acquaint the novice searcher with an interactive user/system interface.."
649,"A Probabilistic Approach to Automatic Keyword Indexing Part I. On the Distribution of Specialty Words in a Technical Literature The problem studied in this research is that of developing a set of formal statistical rules for the purpose of identifying the keywords of a document--words likely to be useful as index terms for that document.. The research was prompted by the observation, made by a number of writers, that non-specialty words, words which possess little value for indexing purposes, tend to be distributed at random in a collection of documents.. In contrast, specialty words are not so distributed..  In Part I of the study, a mixture of two Poisson distributions is examined in detail as a model of specialty word distribution, and formulas expressing the three parameters of the model in terms of empirical frequency statistics are derived.. The fit of the model is tested on an experimental document collection and found to be acceptable for the purposes of the study.. A measure intended to identify specialty words, consistent with the 2-Poisson model, is proposed and evaluated.."
650,"Relative Effectiveness of Titles, Abstracts, and Subject Headings for Machine Retrieval from the COMPENDEX Services We have investigated the relative merits of searching on titles, subject headings, abstracts, free-language terms, and combinations of these elements.. The COMPENDEX data base was used for this study since it contained all of the data elements of interest.. In general, the results obtained from the experiments indicate that, as expected, titles alone are not satisfactory for efficient retrieval.. The combination of titles and abstracts came the closest to 100% retrieval, with searching of abstracts alone doing almost as well.. Indexer input, although necessary for 100% retrieval in almost all cases, was found to be relatively unimportant.."
651,"An Acquisitions Decision Model for Academic Libraries A decision model for book acquisitions has been developed to simulate the intellectual processes used in acquiring these materials in academic libraries.. It consists of a flow chart, weighted inputs and an equation, which when solved indicates whether a library should add the title to its collection, refer it to a cooperative group, defer the decision or drop it altogether.. Inputs to the model need further study and development, but the model is a step in defining and quantifying the decision process.."
652,"RELEVANCE: A Review of and a Framework for the Thinking on the Notion in Information Science Information science emerged as the third subject, along with logic and philosophy, to deal with relevance - an elusive, human notion.. The concern with relevance, as a key notion in information science, is traced to the problems of scientific communication.. Relevance is considered as a measure of the effectiveness of a contact between a source and a destination in a communication process.. The different views of relevance that emerged are interpreted and related within a framework of communication of knowledge.. Different views arose because relevance was considered at a number of different points in the process of knowledge communication.. It is suggested that there exists an interlocking, interplaying cycle of various systems of relevances.."
653,"Thesaurus Control - the Selection, Grouping, and Cross-Referencing of Terms for Inclusion in a Coordinate Index Word List The selection, grouping and cross-referencing of the (usually single-word) terms are based on:  1. A systematic approach to indexing in depth, based on earlier work and    resulting in reasonably consistent indexing..  2. An analytical approach to word forms in which the following categories    are distinguished:    ACTION forms; MEANS-material; MEANS-machine, and MEANS-man forms; STATES;    VARIABLES; and LATENT PROPERTIES.. For each word, those forms included in    a certain category are represented by a single code.. The    category-switching caused by prepositions must be taken into account..  3. Criteria for term-splitting with limited semantic factoring.. Occasionally,    semantic integration is used..  4. Critera for dealing with antonyms, which are classified as reciprocals,    complements, unequivalent opposites, diametrical opposites, and    reversals..  5. Introduction of conditional cross-referencing..  6. Recognition of multiword synonyms as the major difficulty in coordinate    indexing.."
654,"An Analytical Model of a Library Network Networks and network models of industrial and military systems have received much attention in operation research literature.. The extension of network modeling to library networks provides some interesting twists of the usual models.. A general library network is offered, a mathematical statement of the network problem is given, and the solution of the problem is discussed.. An example of the use of the model in evaluation and design situations is provided.. The necessity for further work in both theoretical and applied areas is cited in the summary.."
655,"The Potential Usefulness of Catalog Access Points Other Than Author, Title, and Subject Library patrons who wish to obtain a known document with which they have had prior personal contact often cannot remember the standard author- title-subject information about it with sufficient accuracy to be able to look it up easily in present-day card catalogs.. However, they may remember a surprising amount of such ""nonstandard"" information as the color of the document's cover or its approximate length.. Could this type of ""nonstandard"" information be profitably exploited in computerized catalogs of the future? Such facilities, if available, would surely be used, for according to catalog usage surveys a majority of today's library patrons seek known documents, and of these, a substantial minority possess nonstandard information.. In this report, the results of a memory experiment to test the memorability of various types of nonstandard information are described and analyzed.. A ranking according to relative memorability and potential retrieval usefulness of various nonstandard book features is given.. It is estimated that if the average patron's nonstandard information were exploited by appropriate retrieval strategies, he would only have to search through roughly one five-hundredth as many documents as in a random search.. This reduction factor is great enough to make nonstandard information potentially useful in many situations.."
656,"Measures of the Usefulness of Written Technical Information to Chemical Researchers The effective transfer of technology involves more than just distributing paper; it demands that useful documents be disseminated with a minimum of useless ones.. For 1 month, 10 researchers recorded a sample of the written technical information items that they received; 4 months later they were interviewed to determine which of these items had proved useful, and in what ways..  The results indicate that (1) a researcher will call an item ""useful"" even if it does not cause him to take some action, but only has some significance for him; (2) the more the source of an item knows about the needs of the researcher or the more the researcher knows about an item he seeks, the more likely it is that the researcher will find the item useful; (3) no strong relationships were found between certain readily observable, physical arrangements and information behavior; and (4) an item may prove useful, not because of the information objectively contained in that item, but because the item causes a cognitive restructuring of the researcher's mind or a ""free association.""  Other studies that restrict their measures of information usefulness to externally observable behavior or that do not carefully define usefulness may not be validly representing usefulness to the researcher.."
657,"Standards For Writing Abstracts An abstract, as defined here, is an abbreviated, accurate representation of a document.. The following recommendations are made for the guidance of authors and editors, so that abstracts in primary documents may be both helpful to their readers and reproducible with little or no change in secondary publications and services..  Prepare an abstract for every formal item in journals and proceedings, and for each separately published report, pamphlet, thesis, monograph, and patent.. Place the abstract as early as possible in the document.. Make the abstract as informative as the document will permit, so that readers may decide whether they need to read the entire document.. State the purpose, methods results, and conclusions presented in the document, either in that order or with initial emphasis on findings..  Make each abstract self-contained but concise; retain the basic information and tone of the original document.. Keep abstracts of most papers to fewer than 250 words, abstracts of reports and theses to fewer than 500 words (preferably on one page), and abstracts of short communications to fewer than 100 words.. Write most abstracts in a single paragraph.. Normally employ complete, connected sentences; active verbs; ad the third person.. Employ standard nomenclature, or define unfamiliar terms, abbreviations, and symbols the first time they occur in the abstract.."
658,"Criteria Used by Research and Development Engineers in the Selection of an Information Source The criteria employed by engineers in the selection of various technical information channels in problem-solving endeavors are investigated.. The relationships of certain criteria identified in past research to such factors as frequency of channel utilization and the rate at which engineers accept or reject technical information received from specific channels are the focal points of the study.. A direct relationship is founded between perceived accessibility of information channels and several objective measures of utilization, whereas no definite support is found for the hypothesis that the channel perceived highest in technical quality are those used most frequently.."
659,"A Highly Associative Document Retrieval System This paper describes a document retrieval system implemented with a subset of the medical literature.. With the exception of the development of a negative dictionary, all system operations are completely automatic.. Introduced are methods for computation of term-term association factors, indexing, assignment of term-document relevance values, and computations for recall and relevance.. High weights are provided for low-frequency terms, and retrieval is performed directly from highly connected term-document files without elaboration.. Recall and relevance are based on quantitative internal system computations, and results are compared with user evaluations.."
660,"On Relevance, Probabilistic Indexing and Information Retrieval This paper reports on a novel technique for literature indexing and searching in a mechanized library system.. The notion of relevance is taken as the key concept in the theory of information retrieval and a comparative concept of relevance is explicated in terms of the theory of probability.. The resulting technique called ""Probabilistic Indexing,"" allows a computing machine, given a request for information, to make a statistical inference and derive a number (called the ""relevance number"") for each document, which is a measure of the probability that the document will satisfy the given request ranked according to their probable relevance..  The paper goes on to show that whereas in a conventional library system the cross-referencing (""see"" and ""see also"") is based solely on the ""semantical closeness"" between index terms, statistical measures of closeness between index terms can be defined and computed.. Thus, given an arbitrary request consisting of one (or many) index term(s), a machine can elaborate on it to increase the probability of selecting relevant documents that would not otherwise have been selected..  Finally, the paper suggests an interpretation of the whole library problem as one where the request is considered as a clue on the basis of which the library system makes a concatenated statistical inference in order to provide as an output an ordered list of those documents which most probably satisfy the information needs of the user.."
661,"Is Automatic Classification a Reasonable Application of Statistical Analysis of Text? The statistical approach to the analysis of document collections and retrieval therefrom has proceeded along two main lines, associative machine searching and automatic classification.. The former approach has been favored because of the tendency of people in the computer field to strive for new methods of dealing with the literature--methods which do not resemble those of traditional libraries.. But automatic classification study also has been thriving; some of the reasons for this are discussed..  The crucial question of the quality of automatic classification is treated at considerable length, and empirical data are introduced to support the hypothesis that classification quality improves as more information about each document is used for input to the classification program.. Six nonjudgmental criteria are used in testing the hypothesis for 100 keyword lists (each list representing a document) for a series of computer runs in which the number of words per document is increased progressively from 12 to 36.. Four of the six criteria indicate the hypothesis holds, and two point to no effect.. Previous work of this kind has been confined to the range of one through eight words per document..  Finally, the future of automatic classification and some of the practical problems to be faced are outlined.."
662,"Automatic Indexing: An Experimental Inquiry This inquiry examines a technique for automatically classifying (indexing) documents according to their subject content.. The task, in essence, is to have a computing machine read a document and on the basis of the occurrence of selected clue words decide to which of many subject categories the document in question belongs.. This paper describes the design, execution and evaluation of a modest experimental study aimed at testing empirically one statistical technique for automatic indexing.."
663,"Automatic Document Classification  Part II. Additional Experiments This study reports the results of a series of experiments in the techniques of automatic document classification.. Two different classification schedules are compared along with two methods of automatically classifying documents into categories.. It is concluded that, while there is no significant difference in the predictive efficiency between the Bayesian and the factor score methods, automatic document classification is enhanced by the use of a factor-analytically-derived classification schedule.. Approximately 55 percent of the documents were automatically and correctly classified.."
664,"Semantic Road Maps for Literature Searchers The retrieval of documented information is one of today's most widespread technical problems, affecting almost every large professional group, corporation, and government bureau.. Because document retrieval is in part an information processing problem, much hope for a solution has vested in computers.. But large, fast, reliable ones have been around now for five year, and people have steadily realized that the over-all task of information retrieval is not one of those rote jobs for which digital computers are made to order.. Cataloging and searching are intellectual tasks, and have been thought of as rote not because they are menial and straightforward, but because they are unpalatable and unwanted.. Many people do like to use their minds, yes - but not for plowing through and discarding irrelevant material..  Many people have assumed that this would also be the case in information retrieval.. Accordingly, the rush to put computers to work in this area has led primarily to their use as searching instruments, and much activity has centered around the design and operation of searching machinery.. Boundary conditions have been assumed, such as an ideal searcher who knows what he wants and who knows how to express it in terms understood by the machine, and such as ideal correspondence of descriptors to the documents they describe; then attention has been focused on optimizing the processes between these boundaries.. The resulting theories and systems in most cases seem highly adapted to the needs of machine but not adapted to the needs of humans..  We are, after all, dealing with the elemental situation of an author talking to a reader - even if by means of a buffer storage which will grow more and more mechanical.. The basic problem is to increase the mental contact between the reader and the information store, so that the reader can proceed unerringly and swiftly to identify and receive the message he is looking for.."
665,"Morphology of ""Information Flow"" Such phrases as ""information flow"" may be purely metaphorical, or may refer to porterage and storage of physical documents, transmission of signals, power required for signaling, Shannon's Selective Information, changes in the state of one's personal knowledge, propagation of announcements concerning messages, social increase of awareness, propagation of or reaction to imperatives, and so on. These matters are distinct and must be distinguished. Then conditions must be stated under which one can validly speak of and measure the appropriate flow. In this paper it is shown that within the field of Notification (mention and delivery of recorded messages to users) there are twenty basic activities formed by choosing triads from the six variables, Message, Code, Channel, Source, Destination, and Designation.  ""Flow"" has meaning only when two such triads have two variables in common, forming a tetrad. Then flow or correspondence between any pair of variables is inextricable from a conjugate flow or correspondence between the other pair. Between any pair of endpoints there are six possibly distinct types of flow, according to which two of the remaining four variables are directly used to achieve the flow."
666,"New Methods in Automatic Extracting This paper describes new methods of automatically extracting documents for screening purposes, i.e. the computer selection of sentences having the greatest possible potential for conveying to the reader the substance of the document. While previous work has focused on one component of sentence significance, namely, the presence of high-frequency content words (key words), the methods described here also treat three additional components: pragmatic words (cue words); title and heading words; and structural indicators (sentence location).  The research has resulted in an operating system and a research methodology. The extracting system is parameterized to control and vary the influence of the above four components. The research methodology includes procedures for the compilation of the required dictionaries, the setting of the control parameters, and the comparative evaluation of the automatic extracts with manually produced extracts. The results indicate that the three newly proposed components dominate the frequency component in the production of better extracts.  KEY WORDS AND PHRASES: automatic extracting, automatic abstracting, sentence selection, document screening, sentence significance, relevance, content words, key words, pragmatic words, cue words, title words, sentence location, research methodology, parameterization, comparative evaluation."
667,"A Mathematical Method for Analyzing the Growth of a Scientific Discipline The spread of ideas within a scientific community and the spread of infectious disease are both special cases of a general communication process. Thus a general theory of epidemics can explain the growth of symbolic logic from 1847 to 1962. An epidemic model predicts the rise and fall of particular research areas within symbolic logic. A Markov chain model of individual movement between research areas indicates that once an individual leaves an area he is not expected to return.  KEY WORDS AND PHRASES: epidemic model, epidemic process, theory of epidemics, growth of literature, history of symbolic logic, epidemiology of symbolic logic, epidemic curve, stochastic models, Markov chains."
668,"The Automatic Encoding of Chemical Structures Many methods for the coding of chemical structures have been described in the literature.	Some methods code the compound only partially; typical of these are the methods using descriptor codes. Other methods, among which the so-called ciphers are prominent, code compounds exhaustively. All these methods require cerebral effort; that is, a chemist is needed who must have learned the rules of the code, and who must known how to dismember correctly each structure to be coded. A disadvantage of code designations of structures is, furthermore, that they are not generally understood by chemists. No advantages accrue to the chemist from knowing how to generate and how to interpret a chemical code.	Codes are needed only for the mechanical manipulation of chemical structures. Clearly then, if the coding of chemical compounds could be accomplished automatically this automatic conversion would relieve the chemist of considerable burden."
669,"Rapid Structure Searches via Permuted Chemical Line-Notations The Wiswesser chemical line-notation is an unique and unambiguous method of representing chemical structures by a linear series of letters, numbers, ampersands, and hyphens. These symbols are meaningful to chemists familiar with the notation and can be processed by automatic data processing (ADP) equipment.  The uniqueness of the line-notation permits the use of alphanumerically arranged lists of notations for dictionary-type searches. This ordered arrangement permits the rapid location of a specific compound or a specific class of ring compounds other than benzenoid."
670,"A Chemical Structure Storage and Search System Developed at Du Pont As early as 1961, we in the engineering Department of Du Pont recognized the need for a better system for recording chemical structure information for storage and subsequent retrieval. We believed that current methods and the then current development of notation systems would not completely serve our chemists' long range chemical identification needs.  Accordingly, we studied and then developed a chemical structure storage and search system. Huber gave a good review of the various approaches and applications. To use his terminology, our system is topological coding.  Our initial investigation led to singling out the following needs for such a system."
671,"The Generation of a Unique Machine Description for Chemical Structures - A Technique Developed at Chemical Abstracts Service As part of the development of a computer-based chemical information system at CAS, it has been necessary to devise techniques for the registration of drawings of chemical structures. A major purpose of the CAS registration process is to determine whether a particular structure has already been stored in the system. The ability to make this determination makes it possible to utilize a computer to assign to every chemical structure a unique identifying label. This identifying label, referred to as a registry number, is the thread that ties together all information associated with a particular compound throughout the developing CAS computer system. It is because of this association, made possible by the registration process, that CAS will be able to provide multiple-file correlative searches with assurance that all information on file for a particular compound has been located."
672,"Esso Research Experiences with Chemical Abstracts on Microfilm Late in 1964, The Chemical Abstracts Service announced that in 1965 it would lease Chemical Abstracts in microfilm form to subscribers to its current printed abstracts. With this move, microfilm entered a new stage - use in technical- information work as a publication medium for frequently employed tools rather than for largely archival documents."
673,"Rapid Structure Searches via Permuted Chemical Line Notations. III. A Computer-Produced Index The previous papers in this series have discussed the concept of a index of permuted Wiswesser chemical line notations, the significance of a QUICK-SCAN area, and simple methods for preparing this type of index for a small index file of compounds (up to ca. 5000). It has been pointed out that the preparation of a index for a large number of compounds would require the use of a computer. This is the subject of this paper."
674,"Installation and Operation of a Registry for Chemical Compounds Since 1958 the Chemical Abstracts Service has been working toward establishing a computer-based system for handling chemical information. Briefly, the concept of the CAS system consists of sets of special subject files in the following categories: (1) physical properties, (2) chemical reactivities, (3) biochemical activities, and (4) applications. With the importance of compounds in correlation studies, and the need to interrelate compounds and the huge collections of chemical and other data, a highly developed subsystem, called the Registry System, for handling compounds must be the first step in the actual operation of an over-all computer-based service. The Registry System will include files of compounds interconnected with files of associated data that permit identifying the compounds and retrieving them from the files."
675,"Atom-by-Atom Typewriter Input for Computerized Storage and Retrieval of Chemical Structures Novel features have been added to a paper tape typewriter having a removable typing element. A symbol set has been devised which requires only nine characters for typing common chemical structures. The typewriter has an uncoded ""INDEX"" key which advances the paper without carriage return. A companion key, ""BACK INDEX,"" was provided which directly retracts the paper. Both have been coded. A tape record containing information sufficient for a computer to calculate an atom-bond connection table for a chemical structure is obtained by typing the structure in any order solely from the keyboard or by use of the reader with prepunched tapes containing frequently occurring substructures. Cost was about one-fourth that of earlier paper tape chemical typewriters."
676,"ISI's Experiences with ASCA - A Selective Dissemination System ASCA (Automatic Subject Citation Alert) is a commercially available SDI system covering the journal literature. The repertoire of questions which ASCA can utilize includes cited references, words from titles, authors, organizations, etc., and allows for logical combinations of these questions. This paper discusses differences and similarities between ""citations"" and ""words"" in retrieving and disseminating information. The problem of user- system interaction is explored, and some techniques for developing effective interest profiles are described. Although ASCA is a multi-disciplinary system, examples from fields like synthetic chemistry and biochemistry are provided."
677,"Procedures for Converting Systematic Names of Organic Compounds into Atom-Bond Connection Tables Simultaneously with its development of a computer-based Chemical Compound Registry System, Chemical Abstracts Service is devising procedures for automatically converting systematic names of organic compounds into atom- bound connection tables which can be manipulated by computer. A study of systematic Chemical Abstracts (CA) index names has resulted in a dictionary of word roots used in the names and in step-by-step procedures for converting names to connection tables. Statistical studies of nomenclature in CA indexes show that these procedures are applicable not only to current nomenclature, but also generally to names in past indexes. Procedures have been written which are applicable to the majority of names of carbon compounds, and the preparation of computer programs is now under way."
678,"A Chemical Notation and Code for Computer Manipulation This paper describes and specifies the rules for generating a code to represent chemical formulas. It may be used either as a notation or for internal manipulation by computer for registration, screening, and atom-by- atom search. It is basically a connection table in a concise format which also contains abnormality information relating to specific atoms or relations between atoms. The notation produced by these rules unambiguously defines a structure (as a connection table), but the notation is unique only to a given numbering (or citation order) of the atoms. Hence, its uniqueness is dependent on the numbering uniqueness of the atoms in the structural formula. Techniques for the use of the code in registry and substructure search are also discussed."
679,Conversion of Wiswesser Notation to a Connectivity Matrix for Organic Compounds A computer program is described which generates a connectivity matrix using as input an unmodified Wiswesser notation. This program records the topology of a molecule as a statement of the atoms and their connectivity. One symbol is used to represent each atom and this symbol is descriptive of the atom and its bonds. The network of a complex molecule is recorded as a series of interruptions in an assumed linear path. The application of this matrix to information handling of chemical structures is described in a subsequent paper.
680,"SWIFT: Computerized Storage and Retrieval of Technical Information A unique method of computerized storage and retrieval of technical information is applied in the SWIFT (Significant Word in Full Title) program. SWIFT chooses potential keywords from the titles, compares the key words with an exclusion word glossary to remove insignificant words and an internal glossary to prevent duplication of terms. The keywords may be either a full or fragmented term. An option is available to index also by author. Indexes, containing full citations, are printed periodically and cumulatively. The magnetic tape file is available for computer search through a sort and print program. Responses to inquiries conducted through the computer program are listed in full citation format."
681,A Chemically Oriented Information Storage and Retrieval System. II. Computer Generation of the Wiswesser Notation of Complex Polycyclic Structures A computer program has been written to generate the canonical Wiswesser notation for complex polycyclic structures.. The program accepts as input the connection between all the ring atoms and then selects the path which conforms to the notation rules.. The operation of the program is described..
682,"Substructure Search in the MCC System A monitor system based upon computer-produced printed indexes is described in this paper. The system is intended to monitor a large scale experiment in file organization for a real-time, interactive chemical information system. It is based upon a topological screen system that ensures the inclusion of every compound atom (including H) in at least one screen assignment, that appears to be responsive to a broad range of query types, and that is amenable to random- access techniques. The Monitor system is also considered, in this paper, as an independent interim approach toward fulfilling, in an effective and economic manner, the functional requirements of a small- to medium-sized chemical information system. Thus it could be used to encode and generate structure files, to assign search screens, and to provide manual substructure search capability via microfilm or hard copy printed indexes."
683,"The IDC System for Chemical Documentation After a decade of systems development, firms of the European chemical industry founded a corporation (IDC) to make the chemical journal and patent literature accessible by efficient computer methods.. A comprehensive and critical review of these methods accommodated to the four most important types of chemical data is given.."
684,"Operation of Du Pont's Central Patent Index The Central Patent Index is one of many information centers constituting Du Pont's Information Network.. The development of this index and its relationship with other centers in the network is followed by a description of its operation: input, storage, and search techniques.."
685,"The Primary Journal: Past, Present, and Future The historical role of the primary journal as a social institution of science, as well as a communication medium, is discussed, with particular reference to its function as the official public scientific record and the prime mechanism for rewarding the performance of research.. The impact of various proposed changes in the role of the journal on these traditional function is also considered, and predictions are made as to its possible future state in a more computerized world.."
686,"New Developments in Primary Journal Publication The form and function of the journal as a medium of communication between scientists, that is, one scientist talking to another, have not changed greatly these past 100 years.	But during that time, the journal has evolved to a highly effective medium for meeting the scientists' needs for publication, distribution, storage, and retrieval of scientific information. Kessler describes the journal as the most ""successful and ubiquitous carrier of scientific information in the entire history of science."" And the scientific paper, he adds, ""is such a marvelous and commodating invention that we seem to take it for granted and forget that it has form and structure that fit its function."""
687,"Index Chemicus Registry System: Pragmatic Approach to Substructure Chemical Retrieval The Index Chemicus Registry System (ICRS), launched in 1968 with the support of a dozen industrial and governmental organizations, is now a current operational monthly service. Subscribers receive magnetic tapes and printouts, in which the weekly issues of Index Chemicus (IC) have been encoded in Wiswesser Line Notations (WLN). Over 13,000 compounds per month are provided in machine language. The canonical WLN is also provided in alphabetized printouts. Encoding of over 400,000 new chemical compounds from IC has already been completed, including all those reported in 1967, 1968, and 1969. Since the tapes also include title and other bibliographic information, this paper describes the use of supporting software provided for SDI search systems employing ""word"" and other searching terms, in addition to the WLN fragments. Use of the monthly and annual printouts are illustrated for those searches which do not require computer manipulation."
688,"The Multiterm Index: A New Concept in Information Storage and Retrieval An index not only can be a creative communication medium, it needs to be in a research and development environment. A creative index is achievable if the relationship and association of things and actions, one to another, can be communicated as a continuous function vis-a-vis the real world of science and technology.  A chemist does not think of a chemical, for example, ethyl alcohol, in isolation. Ethyl alcohol is not merely a word or a term without dimensions to a chemist. It is a concept that he associates with or relates to a product, a reactant, a solvent in a reaction, a use, a property, etc. It is within the semantics of his conceptual needs that he would like to use an index to retrieve those documents he needs. He wants more than documents, however, from the index. He wants the index to direct him to those documents which are pertinent to his problem. He wants the index to help him to generate thoughts and to suggest new combinations. He wants the index to help him in terms of his language, logic, and semantics and through a generic or specific approach, whichever occurs to him first. He wants the ability to browse among the terms to discover the term that is on the tip of his tongue or recessed in his memory. These are the criteria an index must satisfy if it is to be a creative medium of communication."
689,"The GREMAS System, an Integral Part of the IDC System for Chemical Documentation The Genealogical Retrieval by Magnetic Tapes Storage (GREMAS) system and the potential it offers for searches are described.. The input and retrieval procedures of the system are explained as well as the integration of the GREMAS system into the IDC system - i.e., machine generation of the GREMAS coding from topological input and of the superimposed bit code from the GREMAS coding.."
690,"Experience with the Mechanized Chemical and Biological Information Retrieval System New computer methods have been developed in associations with the drug development programs of the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. Experiences with these systems are recounted. Special input devices and computer programming have been developed for the input and retrieval of conventional chemical structural diagrams. The costs, operation, and the advantages of this system are discussed. Associated files of biological properties and inventory control information have been created, which are searchable. The methods used in creating consolidated listings of selected chemical compounds and associated biological data are discussed."
691,"Systems Requirements for Primary Information Systems A selected sample of 281 readers of the Journal of Organic Chemistry has been interviewed personally to obtain data on their reading patterns of the November 1968 issue. Approximately 35% of the individual subscribers to JOC had read or looked through the journal within the first seven days of receipt. The average reader claims to have read part or all of 14 articles out of the 81 available. At least 75% of every one of the 81 articles was read, ranging from a low of 0.7% to a high of 10.2%. Structures or equations rated high as a ""noted"" segment of an article. In addition to data on amount of reading of the issue, respondents were asked about amount of time spent reading, other journals read, and journals subscribed to. Correlations have been developed between subject interest as stated by respondent and his actual reading pattern."
692,"Design and Operation of a Computer Search Center for Chemical Information The objective of the Computer Search Center (CSC) of the Information Sciences section of IIT Research Institute (IITRI) is to provide a link between a wide variety of users and the rapidly expanding information resources in machine- readable form. Because none of the available computer search programs met the criteria of the center, and because of the need to handle a variety of data bases, new general purpose computer programs were written, and a tape format was developed so that a wide variety of data bases can be searched by the same computer program. The center was designed to provide current awareness and retrospective search services from both document-type and data-type computerized data files. The desire to develop transferable programs for use at many installations prompted the adoption of the machine-independent compiler language PL/1 and the use of IBM 360 series computers. The objective of education and training led to the development of a ""Search Manual"" for profile preparation, the development of a workbook in ""Modern Techniques in Chemical Information,"" the teaching of a new academic course, and the presentation of seminars."
693,"A Correlative Notation System for NMR Data A new linear notation system which denotes carbon in terms of bounds and attached hydrogen(s) is used to correlate proton groups in organic molecules with chemical shifts.. The notation system is illustrated with acyclic and cyclic examples, and the production of tables of NMR data via computer by proton group vis-a-vis neighboring groups is demonstrated.. Tables of chemical shifts in ascending order is a valuable by-product of the computerized system.."
694,"Computer Generation of Wiswesser Line Notation Computer programs developed at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) produce uncontracted though otherwise canonical Wiswesser Line Notation (WLN) for a  fairly broad class of compounds. An associated front end allows a chemist to communicate with the programs by drawing structures on a Rand Tablet. The WLN generation programs accept connection table input, either from a previously existing file or generated from the Rand Tablet drawing. The programs recognize situations which they cannot handle - the output is thus either correct WLN or a message by which the programs acknowledge their limitations. In general, correct WLN will be produced for any compound containing not more than one nonbenzene ring. Work is under way to extend this to polycyclic fused ring systems. The philosophy and concepts behind these programs are explained along with the more interesting algorithmic results. The role of the WLN-generation programs in a developing NIH chemical information system is briefly discussed. The WLN programs are written in Fortran IV and have been developed on a PDP-10 computer."
695,"Interactive Searching of Chemical Files and Structural Diagram Generation from Wiswesser Line Notation An interactive search and retrieval system for Weswesser Line Notation (WLN) has been implemented.. The system employs bit screens, which are useful for filtering a file.. The user can graphically specify a search request structure and immediately receive graphic information as the result of the search.. Four Fortran IV programs were developed to prepare bit screens for WLN files, input the search request to generate the WLN, iteratively search the WLN bit screen file, and generate a two-dimensional representation of the chemical structure directly from the WLN.."
696,"Computerized Drug Information services To compare computerized services in chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and clinical medicine of pharmaceutical interest, equivalent profiles were run on magnetic tape files of CA-Condensates, CBAC, Excerpta Medica, MEDLARS and Ringdoc.. The results of these searches, which covered individual chemical compounds used in pharmacology and medicine, are tabulated overlap of services, relative speed of citing references, and unique areas of journal coverage.."
697,"Computer Generation of Wiswesser Line Notation. II. Polyfused, Perifused, and Chained Ring Structure The computer program for the generation of Weswesser Line Notation (WLN) has been extended to include polyfused rings, methyl contraction rules, chain of two ring systems, some perifused rings, some chelates, and some metallocences.. Salts and ions are also handled, but in a different manner than what is normally found.. Multipliers are not used by the program.. The normal input for the WLN generation is an easy input program using a Rand Tablet; however, teletype and connection table input can also be used in most cases.."
698,"Encoding and Decoding WLN This paper deals with the encoding and decoding of a Wiswesser Line Notation (WLN).. This problem so far has been addressed only from the point of human.. This paper discusses the encoding and decoding with exactness suitable for a computer, and is an outgrowth of a computer program now in operation at NIH which automatically encodes and decodes WLN.."
699,"Search of CA Registry (1.25 Million Compounds) with the Topological Screens System The TSS (Topological Screens System) for substructure search was applied to the CAS Registry file of 1.25 million compounds, making it searchable on-line.. The TSS screens and the use of the screen indexes are described.. Statistics on screen assignment are provided, and the strengths and weaknesses of the system in general and in particular for a large file are discussed.."
700,"Strategic Considerations in the Design of a Screening System for Substructure Searches of Chemical Structure Files A major problem in the design of screening systems for substructure searches of chemical structure files is the development of a methodology for selection of an optimal set of structural characteristics to act as screens. The set chosen for a particular application will depend on the characteristics of the collection, as well as on its size and growth rate. A strategy which takes account of the disparate frequencies of the various species of fragments in a data-base by use of differential, and, in part, hierarchical levels of description is detailed. The distributions of a variety of structural characteristics, including bond-centered, atom-centered, and ring fragments in a 30,000-compound sample of the Chemical Abstracts Service Registry System are summarized. Implementation of the approach, using primarily bond-centered fragments, by means of simple and highly efficient computer programs, is detailed."
701,"Chemical Abstracts Index Names for Chemical Substances in the Ninth Collective Period (1972-1976) Index names for chemical substances have been significantly revised by Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) for Volume 76 [January-June 1972, the first volume of the Ninth Collective Period (1972-1976)] and subsequent volumes of Chemical Abstracts. While remaining generally within the framework of IUPAC and other existing nomenclature rules, the most systematic recommended names have been chosen. These names are more easily derived from molecular structural diagrams, and, therefore, are more quickly found by index users. Machine editing of index names and translation of these names into structural representations in the CAS computer-based information system are also aided by the revisions. The index name revisions include (i) conversion of almost all ""trivial"" or author terminology into more systematic names, (ii) simplification of general name-selection rules, and (iii) elimination of special treatment for certain classes of substances. Specific identifiable alloys, elementary particles, enzymes, and mixtures of substances are now indexed like conventional chemical substances. Difficulties encountered with generation of previous Chemical Abstracts index names and indexing rules are described, and comparisons are made of new and former index names for chemical compounds and substituent radicals."
702,"The CA Integrated Subject File. II. Evaluation of Alternative Data Base Organizations The relative retrieval performances of the CA Integrated Subject File (CAISF), CA Condensates, and a Merged File created from these two data bases have been measured. Retrieval performance is reported in terms of recall and precision values as well as costs. The precision and recall retrieval failures - i.e., irrelevant documents and missed documents - have been analyzed for each data base and characterized according to the five major types of failures: index language, indexing, searching, clerical, and miscellaneous. Over-all analysis of the performance suggests that an effective data base can be created by augmenting the CA Condensates data base with Registry Numbers and some representation of the CAISF General Subject concept headings, which results in a file approximately half the size of the corresponding CAISF data base and is suitable for search using existing retrieval system software."
703,"A Chemical Search System for a Small Computer The mechanization of chemical information retrieval systems until now has been limited to those organizations that have access to extensive computer facilities. Now, small, low-cost computers, such as IBM's 1130 or DEC's PDP-11, are available with input/output capacities that make them suitable for SDI and retrospective searching on any of the many commercially available data bases. Such a machine, located at the New England Research Application Center (NERAC), is described and the problems of using it for chemical information retrieval are discussed. NERAC's SDI Chemical Search System is described, and an example profile is used to illustrate its capabilities."
704,"Use of the IUPAC Notation in Computer Processing of Information on Chemical Structures A computer-operated storage and retrieval system for chemical structures based on the use of the IUPAC notation has been in operation at Shell Research Limited, Sittingbourne, Kent, England, since 1965, involving a file of nearly 50,000 compounds. Use of the IUPAC cipher has proved advantageous as regards speed and cost of both input and searching. For most searches, scanning of the information explicit in the cipher has proved adequate. Our computer programs also enable conversion of ciphers into atom- connection tables and generation of fragmentation codes. The integrated use of these facilities and their merits relative to other approaches are discussed."
705,"Comparative Searching of Computer Data Bases Methods for retrieval of information on chemical compounds utilizing several computer data bases have been compared to determine scope of data base coverage. Queries for a single chemical, N-ethyl-@-methyl-m-trifluoromethylphenethylamine (fenfluramine) and generic chemicals (2-pyrrolidinones) were submitted to the services for searching through the recent literature. Data bases employed included MEDLARS, Excerpta Medica, CA Condensates, CBAC, Ringdoc, Current Abstracts in Chemistry and Automatic New Structure Alert (ANSA). Preparation of search questions is outlined and comparative results are reported indicating the yield from each data base."
706,"A Graph-Theoretic Algorithm for Matching Chemical Structures There are many chemical retrieval systems which process the first type of request efficiently. Most of these systems are also capable of handling certain fragment requests; however, the fragments which can be processed are frequently of a restricted nature. For example, in retrieval systems which are based on linear ciphers, only those fragments which are explicit in the cipher are readily detected. To allow a completely general specification of fragments it seems inevitable that a detailed atom-by-atom comparison is required of the query and library structures. A technique for making such detailed comparisons is presented in this report. This technique is novel in that it avoids the excessive backtracking ad restarting required by other atom-by-atom matching procedures.  Before giving the details of the proposed algorithm, some definitions are reviewed and a brief example is presented to illustrate the over-all concepts. Then the flow diagram of the algorithm is explained in terms of additional examples. Finally, the mechanization of the algorithm for a digital computer is discussed.  This report is a condensed version of the original, which gives a generalization and comprehensive description of the algorithm, proofs of convergence and related topics, and applications other than chemical retrieval systems."
707,"French National Policy for Chemical Information and the DARC System as a Potential Tool of This Policy The incentive and the main lines of French policy on chemical information, as well as their implementation, are described.. New governmental bodies have been created aiming at seting up a national network for scientific and technical information.. Among these, the CNIC (Centre National d'Information Chemique) is in charge of the chemical field.. The DARC system is being implemented as a tool of national policy for chemical information.. An exhaustive chemical data processing system, it features topological encoding, input, and retrieval methods which are described in this paper.."
708,An Efficient Design for Chemical Structure Searching. I. The Screens A method has been developed for generating efficient screens for chemical structures.. Fragments are generated by an algorithm under control of file statistics.. The fragments obtained are normalized by weighting their code patterns.. Superimposition of these codes yields the screen codes for the structures..
709,"The Chemical Abstracts Service Chemical Registry System. I. General Design The Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) Chemical Registry System is a computer- based system that uniquely identifies chemical substances on the basis of composition and structure. Since initial operation in 1964 as a stand-alone input, storage, and retrieval system for structural representations of organic chemical compounds, the scope of the CAS Registry System has steadily increased to include all types of chemical substances and the entire system has been integrated into CAS indexing operations. The third refinement of this system, Registry III, which has been in operation for over a year, involves major changes in Registry recods but no change in the basic algorithmic techniques for registering chemical substances. The previous format for listing atoms and bonds has been modified so that each ring system is now separately identified, and this ring-system identifier is used in the record for each substance that contains that ring. These modifications support CAS nomenclature derivation and also a computer-based structure output system. The general design of Registry III, which involves a structure record of cyclic and acyclic segments, is presented."
710,An International Mass Spectral Search System (MSSS). V. A status Report The status of MSSS is described.. Problems and experiences that have been encountered in three years of commmercial operation of this system are reported and discussed..
711,"Development and Production of Chemical Titles, a Current Awareness Index Publication Prepared with the Aid of a Computer The introduction of Chemical titles in 1961 marked the first publication produced almost entirely by computers and other data-processing equipment. The success of this innovation has generated many requests for more information about it. With this in mind, we hope to encourage other organizations to make use of this technique for dissemination of information by presenting here a history of Chemical titles' development coupled with a description of its production."
712,"Technical-Abstracting Fundamentals. II. Writing Principles and Practices Abstracts can serve their purpose best only if they are carefully written to transmit important information to readers quickly and accurately. This requires knowledge of audience needs, habits, and desires; ability to identify the key facts in the document; ability to organize these facts, to present them in the order best suited to the audience; and ability to write the abstracts clearly, concisely, and in conformity with the style rules of the medium involved. Some of these abilities are inborn, but all can be learned by study, practice, and criticism."
713,"Patent Citation Indexing and the Notions of Novelty, Similarity, and Relevance The unique features of the ""references cited"" in U.S. patents are discussed in relation to their use in the patent section of the Science Citation Index, which adds a new dimension to patent searching.. Citation indexing provides a new basis for clarifying the concepts of similarity, coupling, novelty, and relevance.."
714,"Weighted Term Search: A Computer Program for an Inverted Coordinate Index on Magnetic Tape Ten to 15 years ago, much technical literature was accurately indexed according to strict rules of classification.. Today, because of the large amount of technical data written, it is no longer practical to apply the same rigid indexing procedures.. We should therefore be concerned with new search techniques which will allow us to handle input at the lower level we are forced to accept.. This paper describes such a search technique.."
715,"Articulation in the Generation of Subject Indexes by computer A simple and logical model for the automatic generation of subject indexes from title like phrases is described, and its advantages and disadvantages are discussed.	It is based on recent studies of the structure of articulated subject indexes, such as those to Chemical Abstracts. The model employs the prepositions and connectives of phrases of simple structure as articulating points, and selects from all possible forms of entries those which lead to optimal organization in an index. The technique is illustrated with part of an index to a recent abstracting journal. The wide variety of controls which can be exerted by the indexer and the program is discussed."
716,"Reading Behavior of Chemists Most discussions about the future design of chemical information systems emphasize the effects of computer speed on composition, storage, searching, and retrieval. Little attention has been paid to the behavior of the scientist (chemist) toward the learning process and the role of the literature in that learning process. The ACS has gained some insight into this behavior and thus urges caution before one leaps to the uncritical conclusion that the literature as now constituted is dead but has not yet fallen over. What seems more likely, when human behavior patterns are considered, is that the new and the old will co-exist side by side for several generations, and that the system's current emphasis on completeness will be replaced with selective compression."
717,Current Information Dissemination: Ideas and Practices A detailed description and a tabulated summary of the salient feature of 17 current awareness information services are presented to illustrate various approaches to handling the current information dissemination problem..
718,"Critical Reviews: Introductory Remarks Critical reviews are examined in terms of the quality and quantity of their present production and the measure of their value and utility to scientists in meeting information needs..The paper presented the viewpoint of user, sponsor, author, and editor, and discuss present problems and possible future solutions.."
719,"Critical Reviews: The User's Point of View Scientists are worried about the ""information explosion"" and the amount of published literature that could have a significant impact on their work. One thing that can help is a condensation and evaluation of the published material. This is the task of reviews, and without them, the other tools for dealing with the information explosion will be inadequate. Suggestions are made on ways for authors and editors to make their reviews more eccessible and more useful and on the need for better education of users."
720,"A Selective Current-Awareness System Using Engineering Index's Plastics Data Base. II. Performance The operational performance over a 17-month period of the previously described selective dissemination system is presented. Of the 21,000 notifications sent to about 20 users, 91% were evaluated; of these, 14% were of ""Document-Ordered Interest,"" 48% were ""Of Interest,"" 27% were ""Marginal,"" and 11% were ""Of No Interest."" Recall data obtained from about half the users over a period of eight months show the precision- factor/recall-factor products are generally greater than 0.5. The effect of iterative profile adjustments on precision-recall performance is discussed. A comparison made with four other SDI systems shows a relatively high level of performance for this system."
721,"User Experiences with Primary Journals on 16-Mm Microfilm The availability of scientific journals on 16-mm film is a relatively new phenomenon. User acceptance of this microfilm application has been greatly    improved by loading the file into cartridges and making use of motor-driven reader-printers. This equipment permits rapid searching of the microfilm and adds the convenience of on-the-spot hard-copy prints as needed. Of prime  importance are the economic advantages of these editions, since they allow many special libraries to stretch greatly the space available to them for journal housing. The economics of this approach are also discussed, as are the reactions of the scientists and information personnel who use them."
722,"Information Transfer Limitations of Titles of Chemical Documents Some methods of estimating the minimum amounts of information in a document not retrievable through its title are discussed. An analysis of the information transferred by different types of keywords is helpful in planning search strategies, e.g., 30% of chemical substances mentioned in journal articles are not discernable in their titles even when broad class names are used as synonyms. Patents have considerably less informative titles than journal articles. In nuclear science, report titles are also less informative than those of journal articles, but the proportion of reports with completely uninformative titles is now only 10% of the 1957 value. Titles in chemistry are more informative than those in most other fields, but the use of alerting and other services based on titles requires a good understanding of the underlying information transfer principles."
723,"The Development, Cost, and Impact of a Current Awareness Service in an Industrial Town The development of a current awareness system in The Dow Chemical Company has resulted in four established services, one based on internal information and the other three on Chemical Abstracts. In addition several other services are now being tried or considered. The operation of such a service is expensive, but the willingness of the user to pay for it and responses to a survey indicate that it is a useful and worthwhile tool to the scientist and engineer. The use of such services also has a significant effect on other established information services."
724,"Document Access Long-range, copies of needed documents will be rapidly and inexpensively supplied to users in libraries or at their desks by querying an electronic network linking document sources (central libraries and publishers). In the interim, local libraries will slowly progress through increased dependence on local holdings of microfilm to development of and dependence on regional, national, and discipline networks for access to most of the documents desired. These developments will depend, however, on resolution of the copyright problem by mechanisms that will fairly remunerate the copyright owners. As background, and because radical change is not expected overnight, the paper also reviews conventional and sophisticated storage systems, including microfilm, facsimile, and video; copyright aspects; costs; need for speed; other user considerations; and standards."
725,"An Inquiry on New Forms of Primary Publications Some of the problems associated with present journal publications practices are discussed. These are attributed to the fact that as the literature has expanded, the needs of both authors and readers are no longer being met by printing and distributing all of the material accepted to all subscribers. A two-edition system is proposed, with short versions of papers in a broad circulation issue and expanded versions, including full details and discussion, in library-circulation microfilm editions. Reactions of chemists to such a system are discussed. It is recommended that two-edition journals be developed in a evolutionary way by increasing use of the ACS mcirofilm editions for sections of articles and for supplementary documents to accompany communications."
726,"Evaluation of the Database CA Condensates Compared with Chemical Titles The performance of CA Condensates and Chemical Titles based on analysis of precision and ""relative recall CT/CC"" for a collection of 46 search profiles was studied over a period of one year.. Special emphasis was laid on the function of the keyword phrases of CC and the users' attitude towards literature categories not represented in CT.. The results are discussed in terms of the value of the systems for Danish users seen from users' and the documentalist's point of view.."
727,Evaluation of Search Time for Two Computerized Information Retrieval Systems at the University of Georgia Two statistical models for estimating search time have been developed for the CA Condensates data base using the University of Georgia Text Search System.. Graphs showing the effect of data base size and number of search terms on search time are presented.. Comparative timings between the Chemical Abstracts Service search program and the University of Georgia search program are made for the CA Condensates data base..
728,"User Assessment of Computer-Based Bibliographic Retrieval Services The academic users of the bibliographic information dissemination center were surveyed to determine the ways in which the search results were being used, the impact which the services had had on professional activities such as research and instruction, the interface between the computer-based retrieval and the traditional form of library resources, and the effect of document overlap between different data bases. The survey results indicate that the dissemination services are being used by a large portion of the faculty and the graduate students within the University System of Georgia, with an average of 3 to 5 people seeing the bibliography from each search question. Over 97% of the respondees indicated some or substantial contribution to their professional activities, with the major contributions being a savings or more efficient use of time and broadened subject coverage. The users indicated several changes in library use habits as a result of the computer-based searches, among them more direct access to the primary literature and increased use of library resources as they had been made aware of new sources and media - e.g., microforms. Percentage responses on these and related topics are presented."
729,"An Indexing Coverage Study of Toxicological Literature A data base of 1873 citations dated 1960-1969 was obtained through an author survey of the members of the Society of Toxicology. Coverage was determined by checking the author index through a maximum of three years after publication or through the end of the decade. Chemical Abstracts consistently provided coverage of more than two-thirds of the 1960-1967 citations in the data base. Chemical Abstracts, Biological Abstracts, Index Medicus, and Science Citation Index each provided coverage of 79% to 85% of the 215 citations dated 1966 and their combined coverage exceeded 98%. Excerpta Medica (Section IIC) and Chemical-Biological Activities provided 43% and 58% coverage, respectively, of this same group of 215 citations."
730,"The Status of Chemical Information This report, a summary of the status of chemical information processing, is the latest in the series prepared by the National Academy of Sciences- National Research Council Committee on Chemical Information. The period covered is 1969 to the present. The user, technological developments, publications, services, the Federal government, academia, and industry are the topics reviewed as related to chemical information. In addition to present status, trends are evaluated, problems are stated, and recommendations for action by appropriate bodies are included."
731,"Evaluation of an SDI Service Based on the Index Chemicus Registry System The Index Chemicus Registry System (ICRS) is the machine-readable equivalent of Current Abstracts in Chemistry & Index Chemicus (CAC & IC). In an earlier paper, we described the development of an experimental selective-dissemination-of-information (SDI) service based on these tapes. A detailed description of the techniques of profile construction for searching a Wiswesser Line Notation (WLN) structure file is given in this earlier paper. The present paper describes the evaluation of the SDI service in terms both of quantitative measures of retrieval performance, coverage and currency, and also of user reactions to the service, as expressed in their replies to a questionnaire. Failure analysis techniques were used to identify the reasons for retrieval failures and possible methods for improving retrieval performance. A fuller description of the evaluation has been published in report form."
732,"Computer Search Center Statistics on Users and Data Bases Statistics gathered over five years of operation by IIT Research Institute's Computer Search Center are summarized for profile terms and lists, use of truncation modes, use of logic operators, some characteristics of CA Condensates, etc.."
733,"Profiling, the Key to Successful Information retrieval A major tool employed to enter an information source is the search profile.. The development of an adequate profile depends upon the aids supplied by the data bases.. These aids vary in their content and depth and their proper use is essential for relevant information retrieval.. The data bases examined are CA Condensates, Index Medicus, and BA data bases.. Several searches are presented with a study of their comparative profiles.."
734,On-Line Searching of Computer Data Bases The Research Library of Rohm and Haas Company has been searching a variety of bibliographic data bases on-line for over one year.. A summary of our experiences and the merits of on-line searching is presented.. A conference call technique for driving a remote slave terminal is described..
735,"Journals Most Cited by Chemists and Chemical Engineers The purpose of this paper is to present up-to-date material to indicate some of the changes that have taken place during and since World War II. For purposes of comparison, the work of Patterson and Sheppard is represented in abbreviated form in Tables 1 and 2. The results of our own study are presented as Tables 3 and 4. The reader can draw several obvious conclusions. About half of all the citations in Tables 3 and 4 are to papers published in the 1950's. This, in part, reflects the present highly vigorous state of chemical investigation and its rapid expansion in recent years. Another striking fact is that in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, 39.5% of the citations are to previous work published in the journal itself. In Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, the percentage of self citations is 21.3. To some extent this may result from the fact that writers who habitually publish in a particular journal tend to cite their own work. However, it seems to reflect to a greater degree the dominance of these journals in their respective fields. More than 38% of the citations in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry are to various American Chemical Society publications. In the Journal of the American Chemical Society more than 45% of the citations are to Society publications."
736,"Overview of the NAS/NRC Conference on Large Data Bases In 1971 the Committee on Chemical Information of the National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, recognized the problem of large data bases and accordingly created a subcommittee to investigate the problem and its impact on chemical information.  The first task of the Large Data Base Subcommittee was to survey organizations that generate and/or process large data bases. Giering has indicated several different ways in which one can view a data base as being large. It can be large in terms of having a large number of entries or records (or bibliographic references). It can be large in the sense of having a large number of fields or data elements, which implies a degree of complexity. It can be thought of as large in the sense of having a large number of searchable or selectable elements, and it also can be large in the most readily understandable sense of having a large number of characters in storage."
737,"The Large Data Base File Structure Dilemma This paper first presents a brief tutorial on the principal random file organization methods for handling two major applications - Transaction oriented systems and Information storage and retrieval systems. It then addresses a particular large data base dilemma, not satisfactorily resolved by any of these methods, and which is currently under active investigation. Two approaches to a solution are described. One is called the hybrid inverted list; the other is based upon an old technique called super-imposed coding. The former has been implemented and has recently been installed in an operational system. Some statistics related to file characteristics in this application are provided, but operational cost and performance statistics are not yet available."
738,"Substructure Searching of Computer-Readable Chemical Abstracts Service Ninth Collective Index Nomenclature Files The increasing availability of computer-readable files of chemical  nomenclature and of programs for text searching has led to the development of methods for performing substructure searches in which CA nomenclature terms are used as search terms. Substructure searches on CA Index nomenclature can often result in very high recall relative to topological searches, as is shown by experimental results achieved on a variety of searches. Many data bases which contain CA Index nomenclature also contain nonsubstance data. Thus, searching of substance and nonsubstance data can often be done within a single search of a file with both high recall and relevancy. Profile construction aids prepared by CAS make it possible for persons without sophisticated nomenclature backgrounds to construct nomenclature profiles for many questions."
739,"A Rapid Generalized Minicomputer Text Search System Incorporating Algebraic Entry of Boolean Strategies This paper presents a rapid and efficient generalized minicomputer text searching system.. The system has been applied to Chemical Condensates and enjoys search speeds comparable to services operating on large computer systems.. Complete Boolean algebraic search strategy expressions may be used as direct entries, and all forms of transaction are automatically processed.. Benchmark search speeds and results are presented for realistic profiles serving varied research groups in a major university chemistry department.."
740,"Searching CA Condensates On-Line vs. the CA Keyword Indexes A study was conducted to compare the comprehensiveness of searches performed using Systems Development Corporation's (SDC) Chemcon data base and keyword indexes of Chemical Abstracts.. It was concluded that, in most cases, a computer search yielded at least as many relevant references as did a manual search.. However, in the case of very general search questions, results from manual searches were much more satisfactory.."
741,"Searching Chemical Abstracts vs. CA Condensates As of March 1975, as much as four and one-half years of Chemical Abstracts Indexes and on-line accessible Chemical Abstracts Condensates can be compared.. Although combined searches of both data bases are the most effective, examples are shown in which it is more practical and efficient to search CA Condensates.. CHEMCON and CHEM7071, the on-line versions of CA Condensates loaded at System Development Corp. (SDC), are compared with CA Indexes.."
742,"Searching the Chemical Abstracts Condensates Data Base via Two On-Line Systems A comparison of the most used features of System Development Corporation's ORBIT and Lockheed's DIALOG systems is made, especially in reference to conducting searchers of Chemical Abstracts Condensates..Many of the operations are similar in nature.. However the capabilities are sufficiently different that an experienced searcher can select the system which gives the best results.."
743,"A Survey of the Use of On-Line Computer-Based Scientific Search Services by Academic Libraries To explore their use of on-line computer-based bibliographic search services, a one-page questionnaire was sent to 100 academic libraries in the United States having separate departmental chemistry or science libraries.. An attempt was made to determine the background training of the persons performing the searches, who the end users were, the growth trend, the funding, the data bases used, and the value to the users.. Of the 73 replies, 49.3% indicated use of such services, while 24.6% were planning to use them primarily by faculty and graduate students.. Of those reporting, 83.3% used searchers with a background in library or information science; 47.2% had a background in scientific discipline..Two or more on-line services were used by 72.2%.. A majority of respondents stated that the use paid all expenses or a portion of the expenses.. The searches met the needs of the use most of the time in 83.3% of the cases, and all of the time in 5.4%.."
744,"Semiconductor Journals Using an on-line literature searching system, the number of papers in many journals dealing with semiconductors was determined.. The journals are ranked by the percentage of their contents devoted to semiconductors, and by the total number of semiconductors papers are published.. Only four journals devote over half of their contents to semiconductors papers.. Approximately half of the 19,646 papers (which were found in 91 journals) appeared in eight journals.."
745,"A Fuzzy-Set-Theoretic Interpretation of Linguistic Hedges A basic idea suggested in this paper is that a linguistic hedge such as very, more or less, much, essentially, slightly, etc. may be viewed as an operator which acts on the fuzzy set representing the meaning of its operand.. For example, in the case of the composite term very tall man, the operator very acts on the fuzzy meaning of the term tall man..  To represent a hedge as an operator, it is convenient to define several elementary operations on fuzzy sets from which more complicated operations may be built up by combination or composition.. In this way, an approximate representation for a hedge can be expressed in terms of such operations as complementation, intersection, concentration, dilation, contrast intensification, fuzzification, accentuation, etc..  Two categories of hedges are considered.. In the case of hedges of Type I, e.g., very, much, more or less, slightly, etc., the hedge can be approximated by an operator acting on a single fuzzy set.. In the case of hedges of Type II, e.g., technically, essentially, practically, etc., the effect of the hedge is more complicated, requiring a description of the manner in which the components of its operand are modified.. If, in addition, the characterization of a hedge requires a consideration of a metric or proximity relation in the space of its operand, then the hedge is said to be of Type IP or IIP, depending on whether it falls into category I or II..  The approach is illustrated by constructing operator representations for several relatively simple hedges such as very, more or less, much, slightly, etc.. More complicated hedges whose effect is strongly context-dependent, require the use of a fuzzy-algorithmic mode of characterization which is more qualitative in nature than the approach described in the present paper.."
746,"Subject Indexes and Automatic Document Retrieval Index entries from the subject indexes to CA can, in general, be converted to 'normal' or title-like phrases by applying simple tests to the positions of prepositions and conjunctions in the entries.. Other, more complex, entries can be transformed after somewhat deeper analysis.. These manipulations are a necessary preliminary step to the use of the subject-index language in retrieval..A scheme is outlined for automatically compiling and editing subject indexes by transforming descriptive phrases with regular structure and vocabulary.. These transformations, based on the formal structure of language, are shown to be admirably suited to computer manipulation.."
747,"The Law of Constant Citation for Scientific Literature In listing the literature concerning the subject of 'vibrating plates' the following law was noticed:       Rj x aj,t = constant = 5x6 where Rj is the 'citation factor' for the year, j, and aj,t stands for the total number of articles that have appeared up to and including year j..  'This 'citation law' is based on the remarkable fact that in more than 150 years the mean number of relevant citations per article per year has remained constant, viz. 2x8, in spite of the fact that after 1950 three times as many articles have been published as in the period before 1950.."
748,"The Derivation and Application of the Bradford-Zipf Distribution Any statistical regularities found in documentation should be fully exploited to produce estimates or predictions and to save documentalists work.. But present formulations of the Bradford distribution demand penetrating search for peripheral papers and tedious computation in application.. The present paper shows that the Bradford distribution is closely related to the Zipf distribution.. It requires data on only the most productive journals, is mathematically simple and amenable to graphical methods if a proposed idea of the 'completeness' of a search is accepted.. For comparability of results, certain conditions, which include a specified minimum level of productivity of journals, need to be standardized.. A standard form is suggested..  It is found, however, that a modified form of the Bradford distribution is required when Bradford-type collections of journals are merged into large collections, when 'saturation' of the most productive journals occurs.."
749,"Statistical Bibliography or Bibliometrics? The term statistical bibliography seems to have been first used by E. Wyndham Hulme in 1922 when he delivered two lectures as the Sandars Reader in bibliography at the University of Cambridge. Subsequently the lectures were published as a book. Although the debt has never been explicitly recognized by means of citations, Hulme anticipated modern work on the history of science. He used the term to mean the illumination of the processes of science and technology by means of counting documents. Hulme both summarized the results of Cole and Eales and produced original work on the growth of UK patents (relating these to social progress in the UK) and on the changes displayed in the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature (relating changes in subject and country production of literature to international developments)."
750,"The Effect of Growth on the Obsolescence of Semiconductor Physics Literature Semiconductor physics literature is studied in order to investigate recent hypotheses relating obsolescence to the growth in periodical literature and the growth in the number of contributing scientists.. The results indicate that obsolescence remains constant and that the two growth rates are, within experimental error, of equal magnitude for this subject over a five-year period.. These results are seen to be inconsistent with the assumption that an exponentially-growing literature possesses a constant utility.."
751,"The Ambiguity of Bradford's Law Recent discussion of Bradford's law of scatter has been founded on two formulations that are not mathematically equivalent.. A method of comparing the two formulations against empirical data is developed, and the results using four sets of existing data are discussed.. The results show that one particular formulation is more consistent with the practical situation.."
752,"On the Inverse Relationship of Recall and Precision It is now ten years since some slight experimental evidence was presented which appeared to support the hypothesis that there was an inverse relationship between recall and precision. The idea of this was certainly not new; Fairthorne had more than implied it in his discussions on OBNA and ABNO systems, i.e. Only-But-Not-All (high precision) and All-But-Not- Only (high recall). However, it was one of the propositions arising from Cranfield I which met with strong opposition and was quite rightly attacked. In reply to the critical review by Swanson, I had to agree that the simple hypothesis required modification. By the following year test results coming from the experiments by Salton and from Cranfield II made further modification necessary, and the hypothesis was finally put forward to read as follows: 'Within a single system, assuming that a sequence of subsearches for a particular question is made in the logical order of expected decreasing precision, and the requirements are those stated in the question, there is an inverse relationship between recall and precision, if the results of a number of different searches are averaged. This, it will be noted, has four qualifications to the basic statement."
753,"Source of Citations and References for Analysis Purposes: A Comparative Assessment The uses to which analysis of bibliographical references and citations can be put are categorized.. Five sources of references and citations are identified, and their advantages and disadvantages for various purposes assessed and compared.. Comparative studies of different sources are urged.."
754,"A Test for the Separation of Relevant and Non-Relevant Documents in Experimental Retrieval Collections Many retrieval experiments are intended to discover ways of improving performance, taking the results obtained with some particular technique as a baseline.. The fact that substantial alterations to a system often have little or no effect on particular collections is puzzling.. This may be due to the initially poor separation of relevant and non-relevant documents.. The paper presents a procedure for characterizing this separation for the collection, which can be used to show whether proposed modifications of the base system are likely to be useful.."
755,"The Journal of Documentation This paper examines the implications of the findings of evaluative tests regarding the retrieval performance of natural language in various subject fields. It suggests parallel investigations into the structure of natural language, with particular reference to terminology, as used in the different branches of basic science. The criteria for defining the terminological consistency of a subject are formulated and a measure suggested for determining the degree of terminological consistency.  The terminological and information structures of specific disciplines such as, chemistry, physics, botany, zoology, and geology; the circumstances in which terms originate; and the efforts made by the international scientific community to standardize the terminology in their respective disciplines - are examined in detail. This investigation shows why and how an artificially created scientific language finds it impossible to keep pace with current developments and thus points to the source of natural language."
756,"Optimization of Library Expenditure on Biochemical Journals In a 1973 paper, Sengupta analysed references to biochemical journals in an attempt to provide a guide for librarians with a limited budget. He not only ranked journals by the absolute number of citations made to 1969 volumes, but related the number of citations to the number of papers and even to the number of words in each journal, as perhaps 'a better guide to selection of journals for subscription than position in the ranking list.' (A similar procedure is adopted in two more recent articles by Sengupta on physiology and microbiology journals.)"
757,"Citation Analyses as Indicators of the Use of Serials: A Comparison of Ranked Title Lists Produced by Citation Counting and from Use Data Lists of journals ranked according to number of citations received are frequently used as indicators of usefulness, but little research has been carried out to test the validity of this hypothesis.. On comparing lists of titles of journals ranked by citation counting with lists of the same journals, ranked according to frequency of use (using data from a survey at the National Lending Library), it was found that the rank order correlation between the two was low.. This suggestions that ranked lists produced by analyses of citations do not constitute valid guides for journal selection by libraries.."
758,"A Scientific Theory of Classification and Indexing and Its Practical Application A classification is a theory of the structure of knowledge.. From a discussion of the nature of truth, it is held that scientific knowledge is the only knowledge which can be regarded as true.. The method of induction from empirical data is therefore applied to the construction of a classification.. Items of knowledge are divided into uniquely definable terms, called isolates, and the relations between them, called operators.. It is shown that only four basic operators exist, expressing appurtenance, equivalence, reaction, and causation; using symbols for these operators, all subjects can be analysed in a linear form called an analet.. With the addition of the permissible permutations of such analets, formed according to simple rules, alphabetical arrangement of the first terms provides a complete, logical subject index.. Examples are given, and possible difficulties are considered.. A classification can then be constructed by selection of deductive relations, arranged in hierarchical form.. The nature of possible classifications is discussed.. It is claimed that such an inductively constructed classification is the only true representation of the structure of knowledge, and that these principles provide a simple technique for accurately and fully indexing and classifying any given set of data, with complete flexibility.."
759,"A New Look at Reference Scattering It was first observed by Bradford that, for a large collection of journal references on a given subject, most of the articles are derived from a small proportion of the total titles. Bradford listed the journals concerned in order of decreasing productivity and, by plotting the logarithms of the cumulative totals of titles against the cumulative totals of relevant articles produced, he obtained a straight line. (Similar results have been obtained by many later workers. The pattern is illustrated by Table I which shows the distribution of references among journal titles obtained by the author during a study of literature usage in the petroleum industry.) On the basis of these results Bradford then formulated a simple mathematical model to describe reference scattering. Vickery later pointed out that this 'law of scattering' predicted not a straight line but a curve. Kendall has now provided a more refined statistical explanation of the straight line observed by Bradford."
760,"The Foreign-Language Problem Facing Scientists and Technologists in the United Kingdom - Report of a Recent Survey The foreign-language barrier facing British scientists is a function of a, the amount and value of foreign scientific literature produced; b, the linguistic ability of the people wishing to read it; and c, the availability and effectiveness of translation services.. To obtain quantitative data on these points the NLL has recently conducted a survey amongst scientists and librarians in the United Kingdom and the present paper presents the more important results..  The survey has shown that the language problem is of considerable magnitude and is common to the majority of scientists and technologists.. The languages creating the most difficulty are Russian, German, and Japanese.. It has also indicated that local translation facilities are not particularly effective and that, as far as national facilities are concerned, British scientists are largely unaware of existing services which might help them to overcome their difficulties..  The results of the investigation suggest a number of lines of action which the appropriate authorities might follow.. The most important would seem to be the publishing of a international index to translations and the creation within the United Kingdom of a centralized Japanese translation service.."
761,"Minimum Vocabularies in Information Indexing Words have no precision, though in information storage and retrieval we are required to act as if they did.. We have, therefore, to impose certain arbitrary conditions to reduce the element of personal interpretation.. 'Meaning' must be remove from the indexing stage to that of vocabulary construction.. Vocabularies can be reduced to a minimum, first to a core of terms used in specialist science, and, following Russel, ultimately to undefined terms symbolic of sense experience.. 'Basic English' has shown similar minimizing to be feasible for a natural language.. The success of Batten cards shown that the principle could be equally applicable to specialist indexing vocabularies.."
762,"Opening the Black Box of 'Relevance' The purpose of this project was to identify variables thought to affect relevance judgements and conduct a series of laboratory studies to determine the effects of these variables on relevance judgements.. This paper discusses the variable of 'implicit use orientations' - the particular attitude taken by a subject (judge) about the intended use of a document.. One hundred and forty judges rated each of nine abstracts for relevance to several short information requirement statements.. The some judges then repeated the ratings, each adopting (assuming) one of the fourteen use orientations described to them.. It was found that the particular use orientation assumed by the judge has a marked effect on relevance judgements.. It was also found that implicit use orientations can be analysed in terms of their underlying structure and that their study offers the possibility of discovering the conditions under which one person can accurately simulate and use the implicit use orientations of another..  Relevance judgements have been used as a basis of measures designed to evaluate the effectiveness of information retrieval system.. This judgements have usually been accepted at face value and have not been subjected to critical scrutiny.. There is reason to believe, however, that as ordinarily obtained, they may be unreliable and sensitive to a number of conditions of measurement that have not been carefully controlled in previous evaluation studies.."
763,"Current Awareness Needs of Physicists: Results of an Anglo-American Study An outline of methods and summary of findings of a study of American,British and Overseas physicists.. This project was conducted by Aslib Research Department (acting for the Institution of Electrical Engineers) and the American Institute of Physics.. It took place in 1966, the first year of publication of Current Papers in Physics.. Aims were to assess the need for and reactions to this new current awareness journal and suggestions for improvement, and to obtain background information on the current awareness requirements of the physics community.."
764,"Progress in Documentation The term 'obsolescence' occurs frequently in the literature of librarianship and information science. In numerous papers we are told how most published literature becomes obsolete within a measurable time, and that an item receives half the uses it will ever receive ('half-life') in a few years. 'Obsolescence' is however very rarely defined, and its validity, interest, and practical value are often assumed rather than explained. Before reviewing studies on 'obsolescence', therefore, it is necessary to look at the concept and to identify the reasons why it should be of interest."
765,"Bradford's Law of Scattering These authors collected a large number of references to a certain subject, and arranged the periodicals in which the references occurred in order of decreasing productivity. Thus for applied geophysics they found (loc. cit., p. 112) 1 periodical containing 93 references, 1 containing 86, 4 containing 16, 49 containing 2, and 169 containing only 1 reference. They then made cumulative totals for the two sets of figures, so that in the T most productive periodicals there occurred in all R references. Bradford then plotted log T against R and his curves are reproduced as B and C in Fig. 1. An exactly similar procedure for periodical references borrowed by Butterwick resulted in curve A. In both A and B, after an initial steep rise (up to about R = 500), the curves approximate to a straight line, R = a log T + b."
766,"A National Loan Policy for Scientific Serials Elsewhere (1) a survey has been reported of the use of the serials in the Science Museum Library. In brief this showed that where the Science Museum Library's copy of a serial was frequently used, this serial was widely held, and that the converse was true. In fact it appears that the use of the Science Museum's copy of a periodical is a rough measure of the national loan use of library copies."
767,"Journal Usage Versus Age of Journal The effective planning of technical libraries would be greatly facilitated if there were some theoretical basis which could be used to predict the probable distribution by titles, and by age of journal, of future journal demand. As a first step, the author has recently developed a general expression for the distribution among journal titles of large groups of journal references. In this present paper a relationship between usage and age of journal is established and the application of this relationship to some library planning problems is illustrated."
768,"Student Attitudes to the University Library. A Survey at Southampton University A good deal is now known about the use made by students of university libraries, notably from the surveys carried out by Leeds University Library in 1957 and 1960. Statistics of use, however, will not by themselves indicate how good a library is, whether as a bookstock, a building, or an administrative department. How adequate is the bookstock? How fully is it being exploited? How important are physical and personal elements? These are questions librarians are continually asking themselves, but they are also questions readers could be asked directly or indirectly."
769,"Keywords and Clumps Recent work at the Cambridge Language Research Unit has been concerned with the development of automatic classification procedures for information retrieval. This has taken the form of research into methods of classification of keywords extracted from documents, with a view to using the classes found for co-ordinate indexing of technical material. We cannot claim to have solved this problem because the methods we have been able to develop so far cannot be applied on a sufficiently large scale. We have, however, made enough progress to make us feel that this a fruitful line of research."
770,"Tests on Abstracts Journals The amount of scientific and technical information published annually in the form of journal articles, conference papers, reports, theses, patents, and books now greatly exceeds, in every field of interest, the amount which may be scanned by a scientist wishing to keep himself completely up to date in his own subject. For a scientist wishing to inform himself of new developments in neighbouring subject-fields the problem is even greater. Consequently, either the scientist reconciles himself to the knowledge that he is not aware of all relevant information in his field or he places increasingly more reliance on such bibliographic tools as are available to guide him towards the relevant literature.  First among such tools is the abstracts journal."
771,"Survey of Information Needs of Physicists and Chemists Scientific research is expensive and the practical application of its results is even more expensive. Information services are relatively inexpensive and, by constantly improving their scope and efficiency and encouraging the scientist to make the best use of them, we can minimize duplication and inefficiency in research and development. This is the justification for the present survey and for all the work on user needs which has preceded it."
772,"Information Use Studies Part 2 - Comparison of Some Recent Surveys Information-use studies are vitally necessary in order to complement, challenge, and sharpen informed intuitive judgements, but even the broadest conclusions drawn from such studies need to be examined critically. The conclusions or their generality may sometimes be invalidated by special conditions in the survey sample, by the environment having been disturbed by the survey, by the interpretation given to questions or observations, or by the way the data has been analyzed.	These same factors make direct comparison of results from different surveys difficult, and make superficial comparisons misleading. Some comparisons and conclusions are certainly much less sound than the casual reader might suppose, particularly when results have been compressed and taken out of their context in the original survey. The difficulty of comparing information-use surveys is well illustrated by the copious footnotes used by Menzel, Lieberman, and Dulchin in order to qualify the significance of the results which they compare."
773,"A Computer_Aided Information Service for Nuclear Science and Technology The computerized information centre of the European Atomic Energy Community has become operational.. A survey of its principal characteristics is given, and the main problems that arose in the development phase of the system are discussed.. The Euratom Thesaurus includes graphic representation of relationships between indexing terms.. A dual vocabulary allows specific indexing for high relevance and generic indexing for high recall.. Retrieval strategy involves utilization of Boolean operators and frequency-of-occurrence tables.. Recall ration can be determined graphically by a continuous approach method.. Indexing consistency tests show that it pays to use subject specialists.. User's needs are discussed in terms of subject coverage, specificity, rapidity, and presentation.. The user service comprises retrospective searches on request as well as customer profile service on subscription.. There are three types of relevance, and various ways of bringing system relevance to coincide with user relevance.. The Centre's budgetary requirements are low, due to circumspect use of its computer, an IBM 360, model 40.. Its aims are centralization of documentation in the nuclear field and international co-operation.."
774,"Student Attitudes to the University Library: A Second Survey at Southampton University In May 1965 a survey into student attitudes to the Library of Southampton University was carried out by questionnaire with a sample of 322 undergraduates.. The aim was to assess the effect, if any, of the considerable measures taken since the 1962 survey.. Uncontrolled factors, mainly related to the rapid expansion of the University, may. however, have effected the results.. It appears that, except for social science students, there were few improvements in attitudes and use, and that seminars had little measurable effect.. Possible explanations for this are offered, and the place of reader services in a university library discussed.. Other items covered by the survey include the use of libraries in Halls of resinence and of Southampton Public Libraries, which in both cases showed a sharp decline since 1962, the number and cost of books bought by undergraduates, and their use of libraries in vacations.."
775,"The Citation Characteristics of Astronomical Research Literature The citation characteristic of papers in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (especially for the years 1963-5) have been examined as a means of studying the usage of astronomical literature in the United Kingdom.. The decrease of usage with age has been investigated and the decay half-life determined.. Particular attention has been paid to the immediacy affect, and to its possible variation in different sub-fields of astronomy.. The citations have also been separated according to journal of origin.. As a result of this study, a quantitative estimate has been made of the titles and backruns that are required to satisfy a given percentage of the demand for astronomical research literature in the country.."
776,"Tests on Abstracts Journals: Coverage Overlap and Indexing In a previous paper (J. Doc. 20 (4) 1964, 212-35) a series of tests on the coverage, overlap, and indexing of abstracts journals were described. Briefly, these were carried out by selecting recent, comprehensive bibliographies on specific subjects, searching the appropriate abstracts journals via the author indexes to determine the number of references given in the bibliography that were abstracted, then consulting the subject indexes to try to locate those references which are known to have been abstracted. A further eight bibliographies have been studied, and the results are reported here.  Our results are presented below in the following form: 1. Title of bibliography, source, content (number of journal references,  reports, etc.). 2. Abstracts journals consulted. 3. Coverage and multiple coverage. This is a bar-chart showing number of  references not abstracted, those covered once, twice, and so on. 4. Coverage by each abstracts journal, given as a bar-chart, the last column  showing coverage by all services combined. (Where bar-charts are given  they show coverages as percentages of the whole bibliography, actual  numbers of references being shown beneath the appropriate columns. 5. Taking each abstracts journal separately, we show the headings under  which references were found in the subject index. Some references we  were unable to locate, so there is often an apparent discrepancy with the  figures given in 4."
777,Estimates of the Number of Currently Available Scientific and Technical Periodicals Published estimates of the number of scientific and technical periodicals currently being published are analyzed.. A new estimates is put forward based on the experience of the NLL in attempting to build up a comprehensive collection of the world's scientific and technical periodical literature..
778,The Bradford Distribution The distribution of references in a collection of pertinent source documents can be described and predicted by the relation F(x) = ln(1 + bx)/ln(1 + b) where the parameter b is related to the subject field and the completeness of the collection.. The model is used to predict the reference yield of abstracting journals in a search for thermophysical property data.. It is used also to explain differences among various literature studies of the past in terms of differences in subject and comprehensiveness of search.. The model is derived from S.C. Bradford's 'law of scattering' and is called the Bradford Distribution..
779,"Evaluating the Economic Efficiency of a Document Retrieval System A retrieval system may be evaluated strictly in terms of user satisfaction (operating efficiency), or it may be evaluated from the point of view of efficient means of satisfying user requirements (economic efficiency).. When we consider the relationship between operating efficiency and economic efficiency, we are faced with a whole series of possible trade-offs.. There may be several alternative paths we can follow in order to serve user needs.. The problem is to determine the most economical path to follow.. Pay-off factors, break-even points, and diminishing returns must be taken into consideration.. This paper considers some of these factors in relation to various parts of the complete retrieval system: the acquisition subsystem, the indexing subsystem, the index language, the searching subsystem, and the equipment subsystem.."
780,"The Measures of Information Retrieval Effectiveness proposed by Swets Objective comparisons of the effectiveness of IR techniques are needed for development of IR systems.. The measures proposed by Swets, which offer important advantages, are analyzed and critically discussed.. Modifications of the Swets measures, designed to increase their generality and to facilitate their interpretation in terms of system variables, are proposed.."
781,A Study of Cross-Referencing The problem of determining the optimal cross-reference structure for a given index and for a given community of users is discussed.. A ross-reference structure is represented as a graph in which the nodes are index terms and the links are relations between index terms.. In order to clarify the concept of 'level of cross-referencing' the characteristics of cross-referencing structure are studied.. Some measures of cross-reference distributions are suggested as a means of comparing the cross-referencing levels of subject indexes..  Types of relations linking the terms of cross-references in existing indexes and thesauri are examined.. The implications of the study for the construction and testing on indexes and thesauri are discussed..
782,Statistics of Scientific and Technical Articles A new estimate of the number of currently published scientific and technical periodicals has been put forward by K.P. Barr of the National Lending Library. It may be of interest to supplement this with some figures on the number and distribution of articles within these periodicals. These figures are derived from a survey undertaken at the NLL early in 1964.
783,Author Versus Title: A Comparative Survey of the Accuracy of the Information Which the User Brings to the Library Catalogue Details are given of a survey carried out in a large scientific special library on the comparative accuracy of the author and title information which the user brings to the catalogue.. The sample was restricted to requests for book material.. The results are analyzed in detail and show the title to be more accurate.. Some suggestions are made for extending this type of survey..
784,"Documentation Notes I would suggest three possible reasons for the constant average number of references per article. Firstly, on average, articles more than fifteen years old rarely get cited as they are rendered obsolete by the rate of advance. The net increase per annum of 'citeable articles' is not as large as might otherwise be expected.  Secondly many relatively small specialized subject areas, each tending to have its own literature and 'internal' citation practices, are hiving off from the classical areas, because of the specialized nature of modern science.  Thirdly it seems that the 'building blocks' of an article can on average be adequately specified (regardless of the volume of published information) by reference to about eleven items of the prior art relating to the main theme, associated concepts and methods, and general background."
785,"The Parametric Description of Retrieval Tests Part I: The Basic Parameters Some parameters and techniques in use for describing the results of tests on IR systems are analysed.. Several considerations outside the score of the usual 2x2 table are relevant to the choice of parameters.. In particular, a variable which produces a 'performance curve' of a system corresponds to an extension of the 2x2 table.. Also, the statistical relationships between parameters are all-important.. It is considered that precision is not such a useful measure of performance (in conjunction with recall) as fallout.. A more powerful alternative to Cleverdon's 'inevitable inverse relationship between recall and precision' is proposed and justified, namely that the recall-fallout graph is convex.."
786,"Documentation Notes A recent article by Kozachkov and Khursin, entitled 'The basic probability distribution in information flow systems', describes the fundamental similarity of a number of known statistical regularities in the flow of information.. They propose a basic model, called the 'hyperbolic ladder' and relate it, in particular, to work in linguistics by Zipf, in documentation by Bradford, and in the science of science by Lotka.. The purpose of this note is to speculate further on the relevance of Zipf's law in librarianship.."
787,The Complete Bradford - Zipf 'bibliograph' This technical note summarizes the outcome of recent analyses of empirical data which have enabled the general form of the Bradford-Zipf distribution to be elucidated.
788,"The Use of Social Science Periodical Literature The paper presents the results of a survey of the use of social science periodicals carried out at the National Lending Library during a period of four weeks in 1968..  Three-quarters of the requests came from universities and industrial organizations and over 90% of the requests were for English language publications.. Over a fifth of the requests were for seventeen titles.. There were marked variations in the subject matter requested by different types of organizations and although the overall 'half-life' of the literature proved to be 3 1/2 years this figure varied considerably from one subject to another..  Concerning the sources of references, it was discovered that compared with scientists and technologists social scientists make relatively little use of abstracting and indexing publications..  Appendixes include a copy of the questionnaire used in the survey, a list of title requested six or more times, and a list of abstracting and indexing publications cited five or more times as sources of references.."
789,"Social Science Literature Use in the UK as Indicated by Citations A sample of citations made in 1965 United Kingdom social science literature has been analyzed according to subject, bibliographic form, country of origin, language, and date, and comparisons made with citations from science and technology literature.. The relative size of the outputs of and demands for literature in these fields are estimated, and the subject distribution of citation within social science.. The interrelations between source and cited subject are discussed.. Use as indicated by citation is compared with use measured by loan demand on the National Lending Library.."
790,Computer Indexing of Medical Articles - Project Medico An automatic indexing method is described in which index tags for documents are generated by the computer.. The computer scans the text of periodical articles and automatically assigns to them index terms with their respective weights on the basis of explicitly defined text characteristics.. A machine file of document references with their associated index terms is automatically produced which can be searched on a co-ordinate basis for the retrieval of specified drug-related information..
791,"Progress in Documentation Empirical Hyperbolic Distributions (Bradford-Zipf-Mandelbrot) for Bibliometric Description and Prediction Since 1960, and especially during the past three years, many papers have appeared about particular manifestations and applications of a certain class of empirical laws to a field that may be labelled conveniently 'Bibliometrics'. This term, resuscitated by Alan Pritchard (see page 348), denotes, in my paraphrase, quantitative treatment of the properties of recorded discourse and behaviour appertaining to it.  In this field the law cited is usually that named after Bradford or Zipf according to whether the interest is in vocabulary or periodical literature or physical access, in the rate of diminishing returns, or in the cumulative yield from a given input. The behaviour is hyperbolic; that is, the product of fixed powers of the variables is constant. This type of behaviour has been observed for a century or so in fields ranging from meteorology to economics, and has given rise to many particular explanations appropriate to the particular fields. Thus it has received many names according to its exponents, in both senses of that word."
792,"Photocopies v. Periodicals Cost-Effectiveness in the Special Library Evidence provided by the Dainton Report indicates that special libraries in the UK are far from fully exploiting the photocopying services provided by the national libraries.. As these photocopying services are legally obliged to operate at cost, they offer significant economies to any special library which exploits them systematically..  This paper describes a simple graphical method of estimating the savings that can be made, or the extended subject coverage that can be obtained at no additional cost, by substituting photocopies for relevant papers in the peripheral periodicals relating to any well-defined scientific or technical subject..  Though photocopying charges must be realistic, the confident exploitation of the national photocopying services depends on the avoidance of arbitrary jumps in photocopying charges.."
793,"The 'Half-Life' of Periodical Literature:  Apparent and Real Obsolescence The expression 'half-life', borrowed from physics, has appeared quite frequently in the literature on documentation since 1960, when an article by Burton and Kebler on The 'half-life' of some scientific and technical literatures was published, although it had certainly been used previously. Burton and Kebler point out that literature becomes obsolescent rather than disintegrating (as in its original meaning), so that 'half-life' means 'half the active life', and this is commonly understood as meaning the time during which one-half of the currently active literature was published. Numerous studies have been carried out, mainly by the analysis of citations, to establish obsolescence rates of the literature of different subjects. Bourne points out that different studies have given widely different results, so that many of the 'half-life' figures reported are not valid beyond the particular sample of literature or users surveyed; certainly they cannot be used as accurate measures for discriminating between different subject-fields."
794,"'Half-Life' The first diagram below gives a schematic view of a subject literature that is growing exponentially with time - the number of items published per year doubles in five years. Each square of the paper represents a published item.  The marks on the diagram represent current uses of the literature (say, citations made or items borrowed this year). The inked squares are actual uses. The dots are hypothetical uses - those that would occur if every published item had an equal chance of being used (in fact, every fifth item is dotted)."
795,"Progress in Documentation Thirty years or more ago, a favoured question in examination papers for librarians was some variation on the theme 'Compare the merits of a classified catalogue and an alphabetical subject catalogue'. This was a subject which it was possible to write on or to discuss at great length, advancing a number of theoretical arguments or opinions expressed by pundits, without ever stating a single demonstratable fact. When, in the early 1950's, various people, such as Taube and Mooers, proposed new techniques for indexing, the reaction from the traditionally-minded was such that it appeared there was to be a repetition of all the old arguments. In an editorial in American Documentation in 1955, Perry expressed a viewpoint, shared by many others, when he wrote:    Cautious and searching evaluation of all experimental results is   essential in rating the efficiency of documentation systems. May   the age-old controversies that arose from the conventional concepts   of classification not be reborn in the mechanized searching systems   of the future. There is hope for the avoidance of such errors if   we will but regard documentation systems as useful devices, the   benefits of which must be determined, not by polemics, but by the   intelligent measurement of such benefits in relation to needs and   costs. The machines of the future can make us free, but only if we   are willing to subject them, and ourselves, to the most rigid   intellectual discipline."
796,"Switching Languages for Indexing The paper describes some properties of simple interconversion devices which enable material initially subject indexed by a particular indexing system to be made available to other institutions using different indexing languages in such a form as to be readily integrated into their indexes.. Reference is made to the outline Intermediate Lexicon which is the germinal form of a switching language for the field of information science.. Difficulties and problems in effecting satisfactory information transfer through such an interconversion scheme are explored, and suggestions made for the lines upon which further research needs to be undertaken.. The author was the Classification Research Group representative on the international working party concerned with the Intermediate Lexicon.."
797,"Progress in Documentation Classification is so fundamental and pervasive an activity that care is needed to define its scope when discussing a particular application, such as information retrieval.  Retrieval from an information store (a 'library') of those items relevant to a request involves locating a particular class (describing what we think we want) and then, if necessary, adjusting this class - broadening it to find more material or narrowing it if the initial response proves excessive. This implies recognition of the relations between the classes, and the whole operation is often referred to neatly as 'locating and relating'. Assuming that we examine only a limited set of documents (those most likely to be relevant) the operation is entirely one of classification - the recognition of particular classes and their relations. The fact that the instrument we use to assist this operation may display quasi-classificatory features (e.g., alphabetical sequence) or may consist largely of our own brain box and memory store should not hide this otherwise obvious fact."
798,"The Thesaurofacet: A Multipurpose Retrieval Language Tool A description is given of the English Electric 'Thesaurofacet', a faceted classification and thesaurus covering engineering and related scientific, technical, and management subjects.. A novel feature of the system is the integration of the classification schedules and thesaurus.. Each term appears both in the thesaurus and in the schedules.. In the schedules the term is displayed in the most appropriate facet and hierarchy: the thesaurus supplements this information by indicating alternative hierarchies and other relationships which cut across the classified arrangement.. The thesaurus also controls word forms and synonyms and acts as the alphabetical index to the class numbers.. The resulting tool is multipurpose, as easily applicable to shelf arrangement and conventional classified card catalogues as to co-ordinate indexing and computerized retrieval systems.. The reasons are given for modifying certain traditional facet techniques, including the choice of traditional disciplines for main classes, the lack of a 'built-in' preferred order, and the use, in certain instances, of enumeration rather than synthesis to express multi-term concepts.. Methods of application of the Thesaurofacet in pre-coordinate and post-coordinate systems are discussed and brief account is given of the techniques employed in its compilation.."
799,"Access and Recognition: from User's Data to Cataloque Entries Patterns of searching in library catalogues were analysed,using the data from a large survey of the use of three university library and one public library catalogues.. 'Known-item' searches were the object of the study.. Success or failure of the search was correlated to degree of correctness and completeness of the searcher's information about title and author of the item that he wished to locate.. Factors involved in searching strategies were discussed.. The double role played by both the title and the author as a way of access to the catalogue and as a means for identifying the right entry was examined.."
800,"The Growth, Utility, and Obsolescence of Scientific Periodical Literature Line's recently proposed technique for correcting the 'apparent' half-life to allow for the rate of growth of the literature and Vickery's critical analysis of the proposal are both further analyzed.. Using the concept of utility and considering the sampling variances involved, the paper shows that Line's technique is both questionable and impractical, and that a further factor - the growth of the number of contributors - needs to be allowed for in Vickery's analysis.. A collaborative empirical investigation is proposed.."
801,"UDC User Profiles as Developed for a Computer-Based SDI Service in the Iron and Steel Industry Extension of the Selective Dissemination of Information system required the adoption of computer-based techniques.. The indexing language adopted is UDC and it was necessary to construct user profiles based on the classification.. Profiles have been compiled for individual clients of the service, for works within the British Steel Corporation, and for broad fields of activity within the iron and steel industry.. Use of the service has shown that UDC provides a satisfactory basis for profile compilation.. The majority of profiles so far constructed have relevance of over 95%, based on user assessment.. Possible future developments in the compilation of the profiles are considered.."
802,"Feasibility Study of a Scheme for Reconciling Thesauri Covering a Common Subject The feasibility is examined of devising a scheme for operating a joint keyword system in a given subject area using several independently compiled thesauri.. It is suggested that if the individual keywords of each participating thesaurus represent indentifiable concepts, and these concepts are given unique code numbers, then the code numbers enable the keywords of any participating thesaurus to be converted into the appropriate keywords of any other participant.. Incompatibilities between keywords systems arise from differences in the selection and form of keywords.. Eleven types of incompatibility are identified and a method of reconciliation is proposed for each.. The types of incompatibility that can arise in a single language include those that arise between one language and another, so that a multilingual joint system presents no additional problems.."
803,"Progress in Documentation The term 'informatics' was first advanced formally by the Director of Viniti, A.I. Mikhailov, and his colleagues A.I. Chernyi and R.S. Gilyarevskii, in their paper Informatics - new name for the theory of Scientific Information published at the end of 1966. An English translation was circularized in the beginning of 1967. As the authors state in this paper, they are not the first to use this term, and they quote a review by Professor J.G. Dorfmann of their own book Fundamentals of Scientific Information in which Dorfmann criticizes the use of other terminology, such as 'documentation', 'documentalistics', 'information science', and so on.  Their definition is as stated above but they are careful to add the rider that Informatics does not investigate the specific content of scientific information, only the structure and properties. In their paper they also advance definitions for 'information', 'scientific information', 'scientific information activity', 'information officer', and 'information scientist'. They have backed up their proposal by changing the title of their own book for its second edition, and the title of the information science fascicule of the Referativnyi Zhurnal, which is now called Informatiki."
804,"Several Law Relations in Science Bibliography - A Self-Consistent Interpretation Several power law relations are found to occur in bibliographic studies of scientific journals, articles, and citations.. These can be interpreted in a self-consistent manner in terms of growth parameters of articles, journals, and citations.. Similar models have been proposed earlier in physical, biological, and behavioral sciences.."
805,"Automatic Indexing Using Bibliographic Citations Bibliographic citations attached to technical documents have been used variously to refer to related items in the literature, to confer importance to a given piece of writing, and to serve as supplementary indications of document content..In the present study, citations are used directly to identify document content, and an attempt is made to evaluate their effectiveness in a retrieval environment.. It is shown that the use of bibliographic citations in addition to the normal keyword-type indicators produces improved retrieval performance, and that in some circumstances, citations are more effective for retrieval purposes than other more conventional terms and concepts.."
806,"The Extension on Users' Literature Awareness as a Measure of Retrieval Performance, and Its Application to MEDLARS The performance of a retrieval system with a file of only a few hundred references can be measured by assessing the relevance of each reference to each of a number of queries.. A suitable measure of retrieval performance is then the Recall ratio - the fraction of the relevant references that are retrieved by the system.. When the file is large this method of measuring performance is not practicable, and Recall cannot be measured although it can be estimated.. A number of estimation procedures are examined and found unsatisfactory.. Another measure of retrieval performance is the Extension ratio which is approximately the ratio of the quantity of known relevant references before and after putting a query to the retrieval system.. The properties of this measure are examined and it is applied to 315 MEDLARS searches.."
807,"Free Text Word Retrieval and Scientist Indexing: Performance Profile and Costs Comparative performance profiles were determined, by two independent scientific information centres, for on-line retrieval by means of (a) free text words and (b) subject indexing codes, from a data base of 4,600 descriptions of in-going research projects in four broad subject areas.. Altogether, thirty-nine questions that users had previously asked of the Science Information Exchange (SIE) of the Smithsonian Institution, and that were in the four subjects areas, were employed by SIE staff scientists, and twelve of these were independently used by staff members of the Biological Science Communication Project (BSCP) of the George Washington University.. Results of the two studies showed average recall values 30-40% higher, and relevance values 15-20% higher, for subject index code use as compared with text word use.. Advantages and disadvantages of both approaches are discussed.."
808,"The Use of Older Literature and Its Obsolescence Terminalogy and parameters for describing the relation between figures for the use of library literature and for its age are discussed.. Unless a correction for growth is applied, half-life fails a simple test of suitability, as do Brookes's aging and utility factors.. Results based on cumulated data have other important disadvantages.. Relative 'use-per-item' figures are satisfactory.. The need to relate terminology more closely to the facts they represent is stressed: item-consultation decay rate, and 50% consultation probability age are suggested and defined.. In the context of citation studies, item-citation decay rate and 50% citation probability age are equivalent and avoid similar objections..  In data from NRLSI, item-consultation decay rates are only approximately exponential.. Different rates are demonstrated for updating and basic searches, for academic and other types of readers, and for types of literature.. For some historical searches negative decay rates were found in the NRLSI and BML.."
809,"A Single Computer-Based System for Both Current Awareness and Retrospective Search: Operating Experience with ASSASSIN ASSASSIN as designed and operated by ICI Agricultural Division, provides from a single paper tape input a current awareness service by SDI and a retrospective search both by a weighted term machine search and printed KWOC-type indexes.. Programs for producing structured thesauri are part of the package.. Input is in the form of abstracts from both published and internal source..   The system has operated for more than a year at the Agricultural Division and is currently in use at five other locations.. Flexibility of the package is demonstrated by the variety of applications..  This paper outlines the various applications and shows how a single package may be used complete, or in part, or with modification.. Machine costs are given for the major application..  The system was designed with the possible input of externally produced machine readable data in mind.. The intended application of the package in conjunction with tapes such as those of the Institute for Scientific Information source and Chemical Abstracts Condensates is outlined.."
810,"A Probabilistic Search Strategy for MEDLARS One technique for searching a Co-ordinate Index is to compare each reference with a Boolean expression of index terms.. This divides the file into retrieved and not-retrieved references.. An alternative is to assign each reference score calculated from its index terms and to retrieve the N highest scoring references in the file.. This scoring technique has several advantages in theory, and it performed slightly better in a retrieval test with N equal to the number of references retrieved by the corresponding Boolean search.. In the test a minimum value of N = 10 was used, and when less then this number of references matched the Boolean search requirement, the Scoring technique successfully widened the score of the search and retrieved twice as many relevant references as the Boolean searches.."
811,"Measuring Readers' Failure at the Shelf This paper is concerned with the availability of books known to be held by the Library.. It outlines a simple survey method whereby readers record the non-availability of books which they are looking for.. The survey has already been installed at four university libraries, but the results from only one library are considered here.. These results show how a librarian can find out the degree of non-availability or failure in any particular area of the library, the causes of failure, and even the particular items which are in heavy demand and not available..  They also provide information on the degree of co-operation by the readers, the number of titles failing once, twice, three times etc., the overlap of demand for popular books by different groups of borrowers, the waiting time for books that failed, the pattern of demand for particular books over a period of time, the relationship between failure and recall, the correlation of failure from one term to the next, and the relative use of books inside and outside the library..  From the results it was possible to recommend certain changes in library procedure which should have reduced failure, and to compare the titles of books failing in the Main Library with the holdings of a departmental library.. The time spent on the survey and the total cost of the survey are also given.."
812,"A Statistical Interpretation of Term Specificity and Its Application in Retrieval The exhaustivity of document descriptions and the specificity of index terms are usually regarded as independent.. It is suggested that specificity should be interpreted statistically, as a function of term use rather than of term meaning.. The effect on retrieval of variations in term specificity are examined, experiments with three test collections showing in particular that frequently-occurring terms are required for good overall performance.. It is argued that terms should be weighted according to collection frequency, so that matches on less frequent, more specific, terms are of greater value than matches on frequent terms.. Results for the test collections show that considerable improvements in performance are obtained with this very simple procedure.."
813,"Comparative Efficiency of Searching Titles, Abstracts, and Terms in a Free-Text Data Base The choice of the suitable data base for providing an information service is governed by factors of coverage, performance, and cost.. The cost of the data base to subscribers is a known quantity, and the coverage is decided by the data base producers..  This paper describes an investigation into the relative performance of the four major Chemical Abstracts Service magnetic tape data-base, Chemical Titles (CT), which contains the titles of citations only, Chemical Abstracts Condensates (CAC), which contains titles enriched with keyword phrases, Chemical-Biological Activities (CBAC),and Polymer Science and Technology (POST), both of which contain full digests in addition to titles..  The performance was measured in terms of the relative currency of the four data-bases, on the retrieval efficiency of profiles searched against them.. Fifty questions from industrial and government research organizations were used in the experiment.. Search profiles corresponding to these questions were constructed for searching against each database, output was assessed for relevance by users, and profile performance figures (precision and recall ratios) were calculated for each profile.. The overall retrieval efficiency of profiles searched against data-bases containing titles only, titles-plus-keywords, and titles-plus-digests, was calculated, and these results are presented.."
814,"Towards Automatic Profile Construction This paper describes part of the Chemical Abstracts Condensate Evaluation (CAC Evaluation) carried out by the United Kingdom Chemical Information Service (UKCIS).  The work described was designed to test the feasibility of using automatic or semi-automatic methods to replace or reduce the intellectual effort involved in retrieving information from machine readable stores, particularly those using natural language."
815,"Standard Times for Information Systems: A Method for Data Collection and Analysis With a view of obtaining a set of standard times for information system operations, Aslib Research Department is developing and testing methods for collecting and analyzing data on the time taken to perform certain operations.. The current state of development of these methods is described.. Data collection is by a self-recording (diary) method, completed at the time of performing the operation.. The major problem is one of identifying, describing, and analyzing the effect of the various factors which might affect the time.. First results indicate that it is possible to explain a large proportion of the variations in individual times by taking account of a sufficient number of variables.."
816,"Measuring Readers' Failure at the Shelf in Three University Libraries This paper continues the reporting of the Unit's work on a method of investigating how often readers fail to find what they are looking for on the shelves, why they fail, and what particular books they fail to find..  The method used is a slight modification of the earlier one - readers were asked to record on a slip provided the details of the book or periodical they were looking for, or subject area they were looking in, their academic status, and the date, and then to place the slip in an adjoining box.. Fron analysis of these 'failure' slips it was possible to determine the cause of the reader's failure, the individual book the reader was looking for, and the pattern of failure for different groups of volumes..  A new development was surveys of samples of readers, carried out during the fortnight of peak demand.. Answers to these surveys provided information on the effect or failure on a reader's work, what action he took after failing, whether he found adequate substitutes, how many books he found by browsing, and what proportion of the books he consulted he borrowed.. Some of these answers could be checked by a direct count of the books used in, and borrowed from, the library..  The investigations were carried out in three University libraries, each with its own characteristic library structure and teaching patterns.. These differences were reflected in the results obtained..  It is hoped that the methods of investigation used can be employed by librarians to investigate the effectiveness of some of the services in their own libraries.."
817,"The Aberrystwyth Index Languages Test Reports a laboratory comparision of the effectiveness and efficiency of five index languages in the subject area of library and information science; three post-co-ordinate languages, Compressed Term, Uncontrolled, and Hierarchically Structured, and two pre-co-ordinate ones, Hierarchically Structures and Relational Indexing.. Eight test comparisons were made, and factors studied were index language specificity and linkage, indexing specificity and exhaustivity, method of co-ordination, the precision devices of partitioning and relational operators, and the provision of context in the search file.. Full details of the test and retrieval results are presented.."
818,"Progress in Documentation: Research in User Behaviour in University Libraries The task of the librarian is to achieve his library's objectives. A simplistic statement, perhaps, but it is rare that a library's objectives are defined in any terms other than the broadest - for example, 'to meet the needs of its users'. In fact, the definition of objectives in any service organization is likely to be an iterative process, but the explicit commitment to users' needs (however mystical this concept may be) requires the librarian to examine users' behaviour as a first step to determining policy. Since a complete state-of-the-art in user behaviour would fill a substantial book, this survey is restricted to drawing together some threads of research of potential application in university libraries. Methodological problems are not discussed here, since these are adequately reviewed elsewhere."
819,"Document Analysis and Linguistic Theory In this presentation I shell be concerned with only one aspect of information science and its relation with linguistics: namely document analysis..  'Document analysis' is here understood in following sense: the extraction of meaning of documents - in the present case written documents.. We could define the latter without reference to the usual distinction between 'scientific literature' (the object of document analysis in information science) and other kinds of texts - historical records, myths, folklore, sacred writings, etc.).. Indeed, one of my theses in that there is little hope of understanding the kind of intellectual operations involved in the analysis of scientific documents, or questions pertaining to them other than through a study of textual analysis in general, as carried out in many disciplines - history, sociology, cultural anthropology, exegesis. etc. (Gardin, 1969).. For the purpose of this presentation, however, I shall concentrate on the handling of scientific documents in the first, narrower sense, and only refer to other categories of texts in so far as they have been submitted to analytical processes of a comparable nature.."
820,"Studies to Compare Retrieval Using Titles with that Using Index Terms. SDI from 'Nuclear Science Abstracts' A Selective dissemination of Information service based on computer scanning of Nuclear Science Abstracts tapes has operated at Harwell since October 1968.. Users' interest profiles are constructed using Euratom index terms and NSA subject categories assigned to each item in NSA..  The performance of the mechanized SDI service has been compared with that of the pre-existing current awareness service which is based on visual scanning of journals and reports by information staff.. The visual service was found to be providing an important service of good currency and high precision, about 85%, to a limited number of users.. the mechanized service is less selective and of lower precision, approximately 50%, but can be expanded more readily..  In order to compare the effectiveness of Euratom index terms and words on titles for computer SDI matching, an experiment was set up in which sixty users of the mechanized service assessed NSA document notifications which were generated by matching either index terms and subject categories, or words in titles and subject categories, without being aware of the method of matching.. Over 10,000 document assessments, fron six issues of NSA were returned.. The average precision was 45.6% for index terms and 47.3% for title words.. Index terms retrieved more documents, in the ratio 1.13:1, but both systems missed many relevant documents retrieved by the other.. Index terms retrieved only 58% of the relevant documents selected by titles.. The converse ratio was 51%..  No significant effects of document types or subject on the relative effectiveness of two matching systems were found, but when the results were analyzed by title length it appeared that for titles longer than about 100 characters title words gave recall equal to that of index terms, though with a lower precision..  A detailed study of samples of items found by visual scanning but missed by computer matching or found by one computer method but not by the other, was made to identify reasons for failure.."
821,"Recent Growth of the Literature of Biochemistry and Changes in Ranking of Periodicals The ideas and techniques of physics have been systematically applied to the study of living matter since the 1950s and 1960s.. As a result a rapid and large increase has taken place in the research activity in this field and biophysics and molecular biology have emerged as important areas of study.. The consequent enormous growth of literature in the field has created great difficulties in tracking out the significant literature of the subject.. To cope with this unprecedented growth of literature, a ranking list of periodicals in this field has been prepared on the basis of citations in the Annual review of biochemistry for 1968, 1969, and 1970.. This list is expected to reflect the impact of literature on the progress of biochemical knowledge more accurately than the list prepared by Henkle in 1938.. The present list brings out the predominant position of biochemical research in the total scientific effort today, and the increasing bias of cognate disciplines towards biochemical methodologies.. A method of analysis of the number of citations in relation to size of the journal concerned and average length of the papers published has been developed and applied in this study.. The analysis yields three parameters which should be useful in assessing the actual scientific interest of a journal in relation to the number of paper published, compactness of the information content, and the scientific value of the paper in relation to compactness of presentation..  The results of the present study have been discussed in relation to Bradford's Law of Scattering and an extension of the Law has been suggested, namely, that during phases of rapid and vigorous growth of knowledge in a scientific disciplines, articles of interest to that discipline appear in increasing numbers in periodicals distant from that field.. It is expected that the present ranking list will enable librarians and other professional workers in the field of biochemistry to select journals from the viewpoint of their significance to the active areas or present day biochemical research.."
822,"A Cost Survey of Mechanized Information Systems In the course of the survey covered by this paper, cost data were collected by visiting eighteen operational computer-based systems in Europe and the USA, using a structured cost analysis scheme.. The sample included data-base producers and self-contained systems that both create, and provide services from, a data base..  From the data obtained, unit costs have been derived for most operations, and the factors contributing to variations in the figures are discussed..  Analysis of the data has shown that costs are affected more significantly by factors such as system management, salary variations, and productivity of staff, than by technical factors such as depth of indexing, data preparation methods, or computer programming..  The total operating budgets of most of the systems have also been analysed to show the overall pattern of cost distribution, including overheads.."
823,"Progress in Documentation: Measuring the Goodness of Library Services: A General Framework for Considering Quantitative Measures The literature of the last few decades reflects a steadily increasing concern with quantitative assessment of libraries and their services. This concern is both the result of, and a reaction to, growing pressures from within and without the library profession to adopt the tools of the management sciences. The pressures are generated by many factors including the success of these tools in other fields and their adoption by the organizations supporting libraries, the increasingly explicit character of competition for funds at all levels, and the complexity and critical nature of decisions on the host of new options being created by technology and by formalization of library networks."
824,"On the Specification of Term Values in Automatic Indexing The existing practice in automatic indexing is reviewed, and it is shown that the standard theories for the specification of term values (or weights) are not adequate.. New techniques are introduced for the assignment of weights to index terms, based on the characteristics of individual document collections.. The effectiveness of some of the proposed methods is evaluated.."
825,"Progress in Documentation: The Development of Precis:  A Theoretical and Technical History Before starting to trace the development of PRECIS to its theoretical beginnings I shall describe the system briefly in its present form. This will serve not only as an introduction for those who are not familiar with the system, but will also help to explain the relevance of some of the historical sections which follow, in which we shall see how a machine-produced alphabetical indexing system, based on a syntax derived from a study of natural language, developed out of research into principles for a new general classification.  PRECIS, or the PREserved Context Indexing System, differs in some respects from traditional alphabetical indexes and lists of subject headings. Like the system developed by Coates for the British Technology Index, PRECIS consists essentially of a set of working procedures, not a prescribed list of terms or phrases. The system is firmly based upon the concept of an open-ended vocabulary, which means that terms can be admitted into the index at any time, as soon as they have been encountered in literature. Once a term has been admitted, its relationships with other terms are handled in two different ways, distinguished as the syntactical and the semantic sides of the system."
826,"User Evaluation of Information Retrieval Systems While Fairthorne may not have been the first person to recognize it, certainly, for this author, Fairthorne was the first to make explicit the fundamental problems of information retrieval systems, namely the clash between OBNA and ABNO (Only-But-Not-All and All-But-Not-Only). Although it was not until 1958 that the terms occur in Fairthorne's writings, the concept had been discussed in many meetings of the AGARD Documentation Panel and elsewhere. Originally it was considered that to meet these two requirements, it might be necessary to have two separate systems, and the test of the UNITERM system in 1954 was based on the hypothesis that a 'Marshalling' system (e.g. U.D.C.) was fundamentally different from a 'Retrieval' system (e.g. UNITERM). While the idea persisted in this form for some time, it gradually evolved into the inverse relationship of recall and precision, which is to say that while it is possible to obtain, of the relevant documents, All-But-Not-Only, or alternatively to obtain Only-But- Not-All, it is not possible to obtain All and Only."
827,The Evaluation of Information Retrieval Systems Methods of testing systems in practice and in theory are critically reviewed. Some new theoretical considerations are advanced.
828,"A Study of Current Awareness Publications in the Neurosciences Mailed questionnaires were used to study the use of two printed current awareness devices in specialized areas of the neurosciences, one manually prepared and the other a product of MEDLARS. The study determined who uses each publication, how much, for what purpose, and with what degree of success. A major purpose was to discover how valuable the publications are to users and what impact they have had on their own research or professional practice as well as on their information seeking behaviour. Comparisons are made between the results for the two publications. Some conclusions are drawn on information seeking behaviour in the neuroscience community and on requirements for effective current awareness services in this field."
829,"Foundation of Evaluation The mathematical theory of measurement is used to construct a framework for the evaluation of information retrieval strategies. The model arrived at is based on precision and recall. After a detailed examination of the kind of conditions the model can be expected to satisfy a plausible measure of effectiveness is derived. Finally, a number of other measures are shown to be special cases of it."
830,"Progress in Documentation This article reviews the state of the art in automatic indexing, that is, automatic techniques for analyzing and characterizing documents, for manipulating their descriptions in searching, and for generating the index language used for these purposes. It concentrates on the literature from 1968 to 1973. Section I defines the topic and its context. Sections II and III consider work in syntax and semantics respectively in detail. Section IV comments on 'indirect' indexing. Section V briefly surveys operating mechanized systems. In Section VI major experiments in automatic indexing are reviewed, and Section VII attempts an overall conclusion on the current state of automatic indexing techniques."
831,"The Effect of a Large-Scale Photocopying Service on Journal Sales The proposition is examined that large-scale photocopying, such as that practised by the British Library Lending Division, affects the sales of journals.. There is little evidence of a reduction in journal circulation figures.. In spite of large increases in journal prices (which have risen much faster, in terms of cost per page, than the Retail Price Index), university libraries have, since the NLLST was established, devoted an increasingly high proportion of their budgets to journals, though recent financial pressures are now forcing cancellation.. An extensive survey of demand for journals at BLLD shows a heavy concentration on a relatively small number of titles, most of them well established journals, widely held by libraries and with large circulations.. The demand for in-print issues of the average journal is small.. It is concluded, in the absence of any evidence to the contrary, that economic difficulties experienced by journals publishers and the increased demand on the BLLD are unrelated, though both owe something to the economic pressures on libraries.."
832,"The Status of 'Practicum' in Graduate Library Schools The early schools were dedicated to practical work as a necessary component of every program; this fact is heavily documented in numerous commentaries on the time. As this century progressed, however, this pioneer preoccupation came under strong criticism and by the 1930's and in more recent decades, an equally strong documentation attacks the earlier curricula. Now, in the 1970's amid the many questions raised about the relevance of contemporary library education, there appears to be a revival in the use of field experiences."
833,"A New Linear Notation System Based on Combinations of Carbon and Hydrogen A new linear notation system is described which was designed to have a one-to-one correspondence with the chemical structures represented by the notations.. Each notation is unique and unambiguous, yet simple and compatible with computer input and output characters.. The symbols used in the notation system denote carbon in terms of bounds and attached hydrogen(s).. The notation system is illustrated with acyclic, carbocyclic, and heterocyclic examples.."
834,"Costs of Library Catalog Cards Produced by Computer Production costs of 79,831 cards are analyzed. Cards were produced by four variants of the Columbia-Harvard-Yale procedure employing an IBM 870 Document Writer and an IBM 1401 computer. Costs per card ranged from 8.8 to 9.8 cents for completed cards."
835,"Compression Word Coding Techniques for Information Retrieval A description and comparison is presented of four compression techniques for word coding having application to information retrieval.. The emphasis on codes useful in creating directories to large data files.. It is further shown how differing application objectives lead to differing measures of optimality for codes, though compression may be a common quality.."
836,"Entry/Title Compression Code Access to Machine Readable Bibliographic Files An entry/title compression code is proposed which will fulfill the following requirements at the Library, University of Saskatchewan: 1) entry/title access to MARC tapes; 2) entry/title access to the acquisitions and cataloguing in-process file; and 3) entry/title duplicate order edit within the acquisitions and cataloguing in-process file.. The study which produced the code and applications for the code are discussed.."
837,"Information Requirements in the Social Sciences: Some Preliminary Considerations Information requirements in the social sciences are almost entirely unexplored.. I shall argue that exploration is desirable; discuss some of the reasons why this is so; attempt an analysis of the factors to be investigated; and consider some possible methods of investigation.. This article is an early by-product of the Investigation into Information Requirements of the Social Sciences, being carried out by two researchers under my direction,and supported by the Office for Scientific and Technical Information.. It is based on the Report on the Preliminary Stage, presented to OSTI in April, 1968.."
838,"Prospects for a New General Classification In traditional classification schemes, the universe of knowledge is broken down into self-contained disciplines which are further analysed to the point at which a particular concept is decated.. This leads to problems of:  (a) currency: keeping the scheme in line with new discoveries..  (b) hospitality: allowing room for insertion of new subjects..  (c) cross-classification: a concept may be considered in such a way that it     fits as logically into one discipline as another..  Machine retrieval is also hampered by the fact that any individual concept is notated differently, depending on where in the scheme it appears..  The approach now considered is from an organized universe of concepts, every concept being set down only once in an appropriate vocabulary, where it acquires the notation which identifies it wherever it is used.. It has been found that all the concepts present in any compound subject can be handled as though they belong to one of two basic concept types, using either Entitles or Attributes.. In classing, these concepts are identified, and notation is selected from appropriate schedules.. Subjects are then built according to formal rules, the final class number incorporating operators which convey the fundamental relationships between concepts..  Fron this viewpoint, the Rules and Operators of the proposed system can be seen as the grammar of an IR language, and the schedules of Entitles and Attributes as its vocabulary.."
839,"Information Services in University Libraries Development in university libraries in recent years in reader services, instruction in library use and subject specialization go only a small way to meeting the problems created by the ""information explosion."" Reasons why more dynamic and personal information services for scientists and social scientists should be developed include the limitations in researchers' present use of libraries and information, the preference of users for informal channels of communication, increasing pressures on the time of university teachers, and problems associated with computer retrieval systems. Specialist posts of information officer should be created as part of the library services, but with functions distinct from those of the librarian; difficulties that may arise with their location and operation are discussed. The cost of information services in depth is heavy, but it may be possible to develop them within the existing budget by a reallocation of funds and staff duties."
840,"The Viability of Branch Libraries A simple model of a two-stage hierarchical library system is described.. The model indicates, in terms of ""user costs"" and library ""viability"", how the branch library should be stocked.. The most significant factor used in the analysis is shown to be the ratio of the two actual user costs, rather than the actual costs themselves.. It is shown that the viability level of stock provision of the branch library is determined by this ratio.."
841,"Work Study in Libraries A brief review of the principal work study techniques is given.. It is suggested that these techniques are applicable to libraries and librarians and will become increasingly useful as the problems of increased work loads become more severe.. Data concerning standard times and performances would be useful for system design and planning, providing such data is put in its proper context and particularly if it is used to improve effectiveness as well as efficiency.."
842,"Administrative Effectiveness: Times and Costs of Library Operations The kinds of information needed by managing librarians to make correct decisions are considered, with emphasis on the value of current data on the exceptional situation.. Management information in a library is of greatest use in comparison, either internally, or with data from other libraries.. A simple, standard method of recording and costing is urged, so that librarians may readily identify procedures requiring improvement..  Development of the present costing method is traced from its original state as a simple management information system based on exception reporting (i.e. reporting the exceptions which occur in any particular survey), through a pilot study in a large university library, to its full installation in two further university libraries.. The method of analyzing the raw data is described, and examples of the tables are given, together with brief background information on the libraries concerned..  After a note on the limitations of the present costing method and of unit costs in general, unit times and costs are given for numerous operations in both the libraries surveyed, covering both reader and technical services.. There is agreement between results of several American studies and those of the present investigation.. For further comparison, the information on times and salaries has been used in conjunction with a standard civil service costing procedure.."
843,"Subject Specialisation in Academic Libraries: some preliminary observations on role conflict and organizational stress The library of the University of East Anglia has been organized on the basis of subject specialization, a system which the author believes to be applicable to small and medium-sized universities. A comparison of university structure and university library structure shows how the system can bring about organizational strains and conflict situations in respect of career patterns of senior staff members. The need to recognize academic considerations for library promotions is stressed and a case made out for the fullest involvement of all senior library staff in policy-making."
844,"Graduates in Academic Libraries: a survey of past students of the Post- Graduate School of Librarianship and Information Studies, Sheffield University, 1964/65 - 1970/71 The Sheffield ""Follow-up"" Study revealed that an overwhelming majority of graduates of the Post-Graduate School of Librarianship and Information Science are satisfied with their work and working situations. Some of the factors relating to job satisfaction/dissatisfaction are examined together with job mobility and ""drop-out"" rates."
845,"A Personalized Service to Academic Researchers: the Experimental Information Service in the Social Sciences at the University of Bath Between 1969 and 1971 Bath University Library experimented with a personalized information service to social science researchers at the Universities of Bath and Bristol. The principal service offered was a manual current awareness service, based mainly on the scanning of primary and abstracting journals. The service was evaluated by feedback slips returned by clients for each reference notified, and by a questionnaire at the end of the experiment. The relevance performance was good, and few references had been seen before; some precision could have been sacrificed to ensure comprehensive recall. The whole service was rated highly by nearly all users and considered to be a high priority among the various possible claims on university resources. Those who had the closest contact with the information officers had the best scores on most aspects evaluated and rated the service most highly. Some general observations on the place and value of an information service in a university library are given in conclusion."
846,"Jesse Shera and the Theory of Bibliography Twenty years ago Jesse Shera suggested that there was a need for a more analytical study of bibliography which might help to bridge library and information services. Little note was taken of this proposal at the time but developments have since occurred and are here briefly reported. It is argued that Shera's ""macrobibliography"" or ""social epistemology"" provides not only a subject for theoretical study but that it will also be needed for the rational design of library and information systems and networks of the near future."
847,Library Instruction and the Development of the Individual The purpose of a university education is defined here as the need to guide the student towards becoming a self-directing individual.. This paper examines this purpose in terms of student needs and the awareness of both academic and library staff.. Psychological principles of learning as applied to this purpose are considered together with the use of audio-visual methods.. The paper ends with a consideration of some present practical constraints and the possibilities for future action..
848,"A Book Catalog at Stanford Description of a system for the production of a book catalog for an undergraduate library, using an IBM 1401 Computer (12K storage, 4 tape drives), an expanded print chain on the 1403 Printer, and an 029 Card Punch for input.. Described are the conversion of cataloging information into machine readable form, the machine record produced, the computer programs employed, and printing of the catalog.. The catalog, issued annually, is in three parts: an author title catalog, a subject catalog, and a shelf list.. Cumulative supplements are issued quarterly.. A central idea in the depiction of entries in the catalog is the abandonment of the main entry concept.. The alphabetical arrangement of entries is discussed: sort keys employed, filing order observed, symbols employed to alter this order, and problems encountered.. Cost factors involved in the preparation of the catalog are summarized.."
849,"The Development and Administration of automated systems in Academic Libraries The first part of this paper considers three general approaches to the development of an automation program in a large research library.. The library may decide simply to wait for developments; it may attempt to develop a total or integrated system from the start; or it may adopt an evolutionary approach leading to an integrated system.. Outside consultants,it is suggested, will become increasingly important.. The second part of the paper deals with important elements in any program regardless of the approach.. These include the building of a capability to do automation work, staffing, equipment, organizational structure, selection of projects, and costs.."
850,"Bell Laboratories' Library Real-Time Loan System (BELLREL) Bell Telephone laboratories has established an on-line circulation system linking two terminals in each of its three largest libraries to a central computer.. Objectives include improved service through computer pooling of collections, immediate reporting on publication availability or a borrower's record, automatic reserve follow-up; reduced labor; and increased management information.. Loans, returns, reserves and many queries are handled in real time.. Input may be keyboard only or combined with card reading, to handle all publications with borrower present or absent.. BELLREL is now being used for some 1500 transactions per day.."
851,"Bibliographic Retrieval from Bibliographic Input; The Hypothesis and Construction of a Test A study of problems associated with bibliographic retrieval using unverified input data supplied by requesters.. A code derived from compression of title and author information to four, four-character abbreviations each was used for retrieval tests on an IBM 1401 computer.. Retrieval accuracy was 98.67%.."
852,MARC II and COBOL A description of the machine processing of MARC II records using COBOL for an application on the Library of Congress System 360/30.. Emphasis is on the manipulation by COBOL of highly complex variable length MARC records containing variable length fields..
853,"A Fast Algorithm for Automatic Classification An economical classification process of order n log n (for n elements), which does not employ n-square procedures.. Conversion proofs are given and possible information retrieval applications are discussed.."
854,"Library Network Analysis and Planning (Lib-Nat) A preliminary report on planning for network design undertaken by the Reference Round Table of the Texas Library Association and the State Advisory Council to Library services and Construction Act Title III Texas Program.. Necessary components of a network are discussed, and network transactions of eighteen Dallas area libraries analyzed using a methodology and quantitative measures developed for this project.."
855,"The MARC Sort Program Describes the characteristics, performance, and potential of SKED (Sort-Key Edit), a generalized computer program for creating sort keys for MARC II records at the user's option.. SKED and a modification of the IBM S/360 DOS tape sort/merge program form the basis for a comprehensive program for arranging catalog by computer.."
856,"Concept of an On-Line Computerized Library Catalog A concept for mechanized descriptive cataloging is presented, together with four areas of research programs to be undertaken.."
857,"Teaching with MARC Tapes A computer based laboratory for library science students to use in class assignments and for independent projects has been developed and used for one year at Syracuse University.. MARC Pilot Project tapes formed the data base.. Different computer programs and various samples of the MARC file (48,000 records, approx.) were used for search and retrieval operations.. Data bases, programs, and seven different class assignments are described and evaluated for their impact on library education in general and individual students and faculty in particular.."
858,"The RECON Pilot Project: A Progress Report A synthesis of the progress report submitted by the Library of Congress to the Council on Library Resources under an Officer's Grant to initiate the RECON Pilot Project that gives an overview of the project and the progress made from August-November 1969 in the following areas: training, selection of material to be converted, investigation of input devices, and format recognition.."
859,"Comparisons of LC Proofslip and MARC Tape Arrival Dates at the University of Chicago Library A comparison of arrival dates of 5020 LC proofslips and corresponding MARC magnetic tape records that four-fifths of the MARC records were received the same week as, or earlier than, the proofslips.."
860,Standardized Costs for Automated Library Systems Costs of the automated library systems as currently given in published reports tend to be misleading and confusing.. It is necessary to have a clear understanding of how they were derived before any comparisons can be made.. Clearly defined costs in terms of time units are more meaningful than straight dollar costs and can be used as one means of comparison among various system designs and as guidelines for the design of new systems..
861,"The RECON Pilot Project: A Progress Report November 1969 - April 1970 A synthesis of the second progress report submitted by the Library of Congress to the Council on Library Resources under a grant for the RECON Pilot Project.. An overview of the progress made from November 1969 to April 1970 in the following areas: production,Official Catalog comparison,format recognition, research titles, microfilming, investigation of input devices.. In addition, the status of the tasks assigned to the RECON Woking Task Force are briefly described.."
862,"An Algorithm for Variable-Length Proper-Name Compression Viable on-line search systems require reasonable capabilities to automatically detect (and hopefully correct) variations between request format and stored format.. An important requirement is the solution of the problem of matching proper names, not only because both input specifications and storage specifications are subject ot error, but also because various transliteration schemes exist and can provide variant proper name forms in the same data base.. This paper reviews several proper name matching schemes and provides an updated version of these schemes which tests out nicely on the proper name equivalence classes of a suburban telephone book.. An appendix lists the corpus of names used for algorithm test."
863,"RECON Pilot Project: A Progress Report, April-September 1970 A synopsis of the third progress report on the RECON Pilot Project submitted by the Library of Congress to the Council on Library Resources.. An overview is given of the progress made from April through September 1970 in the following areas: RECON production, format recognition, research titles, microfilming, and investigation of input devices. In addition, the status of the tasks assigned to the RECON Working Task Force are briefly described.."
864,"Monocle A new processing format, based on MARC II and some of BNB's elaborations of MARC II.. It further enlarges MARC II to encompass French cataloging practices and filing arrangements in French catalogs.."
865,"Scope: A Cost Analysis of an Automated Serials Record System A computerized serials record and control system developed in 1968/69 for the Technical Information Department of Pfizer Inc. is described and subjected to a cost analysis.. This cost analysis is conducted in the context of an investment decision, using the concept of net present value, a method not previously used in library literature.. The cost analysis reveals a positive net present value and a system life break-even requirement of seven years at a 10% cost of capital.. This demonstrates that such an automated system can be economically justifiable in a library of relatively modest size (approx. 1,100 serial and periodical titles).. It may be that the break-even point in terms of collection size required for successful automation of serial records is smaller than has been assumed to date.."
866,"A MARC II - Based Program for Retrieval and Dissemination Subscriptions to the Library of Congress' MARC tapes number approximately sixty.. The use to which the weekly tapes have been put have been minimal in the area of Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI) and current awareness.. This paper reviews work that has been performed on batched retrieval/ dissemination and provides a description of a highly flexible cooperative SDI system developed by the Library, University of Saskatchewan, and the National Science Library.. The system will permit searching over all subject areas represented by the English language monographic literature on MARC.."
867,"An Algorithm for Compaction of Alphanumeric Data Description of a technique for compressing data to be placed in computer auxiliary storage.. The technique operates on the principle of taking two alphabetic characters frequently used in combination and replacing them with one unused special character code.. Such one-for-two replacement has enabled the ILO to achieve a rate of compression of 43.5% on a data base of approximately 40,000 bibliographic records.."
868,"Title-Only Entries Retrieved by Use of Truncated Search Keys An experiment testing utility of truncated search keys as inquiry terms in an on-line system was performed on a file of 16,792 title-only bibliographic entries.. Use of a 3,3 key yields eight or fewer entries 99.0% of the time.."
869,"A Truncated Search Key Title Index An experiment showing that 3, 1, 1, 1 search keys derived from titles are sufficiently specific to be an efficient computerized, interactive index to a file of 135,938 MARC II records.."
870,"Selective Dissemination of MARC: A User Evaluation After outlining the terms of reference of an investigation of user reaction to the selective dissemination of MARC records, a summary of the types of users is given.. User response is analyzed and interpreted in the light of recent developments at the Library of Congress.. Implications for the future of SDI of MARC in a university setting conclude the paper.."
871,"Analysis of Search Key Retrieval on a Large Bibliographic File Two research keys (4,5 and 3,3) are analyzed using a probability formula on a bibliographic file of 857,725 records.. Assuming random requests by record permits the creation of a predictive model which more closely approximates the actual behavior of a search and retrieval system as determined by a usage survey.."
872,"The Shared Cataloging System of the Ohio College Library Center Development and implementation of an off-line catalog card production system and on-line shared cataloging system are described.. In off-line production, average cost per card for 529,893 catalog cards in finished form and alphabetized for filing was 6.57c.. An account is given of system design and equipment selection for the on-line system.. File organization and programs are described, and the on-line cataloging system is discussed.. The system is easy to use, efficient, reliable, and cost beneficial.."
873,"Content Designators for Machine-Readable Records: A Working Paper Under the auspices of the International Federation of Library Association's Committees on Cataloging and Mechanization, an International Working Group on Content Designators was formed to attempt to resolve the differences in the content designators assigned by national agencies to their machine-readable bibliographic records..  All working papers emanating from the IFLA Working Group will be submitted to the International Standards Organization Technical Committee 46, Subcommittee 4, Working Group on Content Designators..  Prior to any attempt to standardize the content designators for the international exchange of bibliographic data in machine-readable form, it is necessary to agree on certain basic points from which all future work will be derived.. This first working paper is a statement of: 1) the obstacles that presently exist which prevent the effective international interchange of bibliographic data in machine-readable form; 2) the score of concern for the IFLA Working Group; and 3) the definition of terms included in the broader term ""content designators""..  If an international standard format can be derived, it would greatly facilitate the use in this country of machine-readable bibliographic records issued by other national agencies.. It should also contribute significantly to the expansion of MARC to other languages by the Library of Congress.."
874,"The New York Public Library Automated Book Catalog Subsystem A comprehensive automated bibliographic control system has been developed by the New York Public Library.. This system is unique in its use of an automated authority system and highly sophisticated machine filing algorithms.. The primary aim was the rigorous control of established forms and their cross-reference structure.. The original impetus for creation of the system, and its most highly visible product, is a photocomposed book catalog.. The book catalog subsystem supplies automatic punctuation of condensed entries and contains the ability to produce cumulation/supplement book catalogs in installments without loss of control of the cross referencing structure.."
875,File Structure for an On-Line Catalog of One Million Titles A description is given of the file organization and design of an on-line catalog suitable for automation of a library of one million books.. A method of virtual hash addressing allows rapid search of the indexes to the catalog file.. Storage of textual material in a compressed form allows considerable reduction in storage costs..
876,"Catalog Records retrieved by Pesonal Author Using Derived Search Keys This investigation shows that search keys derived from personal author names possess a sufficient degree of distinctness to be employed in an efficient computerized interactive index to a file MARC II catalog records having 167,745 personal author entries.."
877,"Comparison of MARC Serials, NSDP, and ISBD-S Briefly characterizes and compares the specifications for serial records of the MAR Serials Distribution Service, the National Serials Data Program, and the International Standard Bibliographic Description for Serials.. Both data content and, where applicable, machine format are analyzed.."
878,"The Ad Hoc Discussion Group on Serials Data Bases: Its History, Current Position, and Future The Ad Hoc Discussion Group on Serials Data Bases was formed as a result of an informal meeting held during the American Library Association's Conference in Las Vegas on June 26, 1973. Those in attendance were primarily interested in the generation and maintenance of machine-readable union files of serials. (This author's involvement in that meeting and the later activities of the group stems from a contract between the National Library of Canada and York University concerning an investigation of the problems associated with machine-readable serials files.)"
879,"Providing Bibliograhic Services From Machine-Radable Data Bases - The Library's Role Libraries will play a key role in providing access to data bases, but not by subscribing to tape services and establishing local processing centers as is commonly assumed.. High costs and the nature of the demand will make this approach unfeasible.. It is more likely that the library's reference staff will develop the capability of serving as a broker between the local campus user and the various regional or specialized retail distribution centers which exist or will be established.."
880,"BIBCON - A General Purpose Software System for MARC-Based Book Catalog Production The BIBCON file management system, designed for use on IBM 360 system equipment, performs two basic functions: (1) it creates MARC structured, bibliographic records from untagged input data; (2) from these records it produces page image output for book catalogs.. The system accepts data from several different input devices and can produce a variety of output formats by line printer, photocomposition, or computer output microform (COM).."
881,"Impact of National Developments on Library Technical Services and Public Services Several recently established national programs are evaluated from the point of view of the practicing librarian.. It is essential that we be aware of the consequences of adopting these programs, and that planners and librarians communicate adequately.."
882,"CONSER: An Update The purposes of this paper are to explain what the CONSER Project is, to answer some of the questions that have been raised concerning it, and to make some general comments on the problems associated with this type of project.. This paper will not attempt to review in detail the history and operational facets of the project since these are available elsewhere.."
883,"MEDLARS II: A Third Generation Bibliographic Production System MEDLARS II, the replacement for the MEDLARS system used by the National Library of Medicine over the past decade, incorporates a number of major advances in the state of the art for massive information retrieval systems: on-line access to a number of very large bibliographic files, an efficient throughput figure, validation and mapping of inputs against authority files, and modularity and parametric programming to provide the flexibility needed to support future system enhancements.. Major MEDLARS II subsystems described are: (1) specification maintenance, (2) input and release, (3) file maintenance, (4) retrieval, (5) publication production, and (6) management reporting.. The MEDLARS II retrieval subsystem (ELHILL) incorporated the results of the experimental AIM-TWX service.."
884,"The Washington Library Network's Computerized Bibliographic System The Washington Library Network is developing a computer-assisted bibliographic system to speed and expand library operations throughout the state.. Features include MARC format with all content designators, subject and name authority files, sorting by LC rules, and stringent quality control.. Feature modules will add acquisition/accounting and circulation support.. On-line capabilities are currently under development..  This paper describes the present batch-mode cataloging support subsystem, its history, operation, impacts, problems, costs.. Present Developmental efforts toward on-line integrated acquisitions and cataloging support are indicated.."
885,"State of the Nation in Networking There is little so ephemeral as a ""Current review"" in an area so rapidly changing as library networking. Yet this very characteristic of rapid change makes valid the effort of providing an overview at a point in time.   The first task, then, is network definition and description, necessary because a large number of library activities have been described as ""networks"" and only a limited number are covered here. The chapter on ""Library and Information Networks"" in volume seven of the Annual Review of Information Science and Technology provides a ""normative list"" of ""essential characteristics"":   1. A network's function is to marshal resources ... to accomplish results    beyond the ability of any one of its members.   2. A network has developed an organizational design and structure that    allows it to establish an identifiable domain....   3. It has a base in communications technology."
886,"Automated Alternatives to Card Catalogs: The Current State of Planning and Implementation The results of a study carried out under the auspices of the Council on Library Resources are described.. The stated goal of this study was to determine and analyze the current state of planning and implementation for computer-generated replacements for the card catalog (book catalog, microimage catalog, on-line catalog) for large collections (250,000 titles or more) and selected smaller libraries (less than 250,000 titles) that had actually implemented an alternative form of catalog.."
887,COM Catalog Based on OCLC Records The production of a COM catalog using OCLC records on magnetic tape is outlined.. Standards developed within the library community as represented in the MARK format have made this catalog possible.. A brief overview of the procedures involved and of the catalog is presented..
888,"Serials Data Control: Current Problems and Prospects This paper will describe three areas of current serials activity which are of importance to conventional libraries. I would like to do this in general terms, eschewing details which only seem to serve to confuse. The three areas are:  l. Standards. What they are, what impact they can have, what influence   they currently are having on serials processing.  2. Standards Setting Projects. I will attempt to describe and/or define   the almost incestuous intricacies of the National Serials Data Program   (NSDP), the International Serials Data System (ISDS), and CONSER   (CONversion of SERials).  3. Code Revision Activities. I will outline the influence that current   standards and projects are having on code revision activities.  My comments are to be considered within the context of conventional libraries, primarily one wherein card catalogs still exist and manual processes are the rule."
889,"A Comprehensive Study Based on Physics Abstracts The Documentation Research Project of the American Institute has been engaged for some years in an effort to improve the various systems available for the publication and dissemination of physics literature. Numerous aspects of the problem have been studied and much information has been obtained from the projects listed in the bibliography which appears on the inside cover of this Report. Studies which resulted in the determination of the indexing requirements of research physicists, new methods for the content analysis and indexing of physics research papers, and better production methods for journal indexes have formed the backbone of the work which has as its ultimate objective the creation of a reference retrieval system which is adequate for the physicists who will use it."
890,"Pattern Recognition and Structure-Activity Relationship Studies.. Computer-Assisted Prediction of Antitumor Activity in Structurally Diverse Drugs in an Experimental Mouse Brain Tumor System This paper reports the application of pattern recognition and substructural analysis to the problem of predicting the antineoplastic activity of 24 test compounds in an experimental mouse brain tumor system based on 138 structurally diverse compounds tested in this tumor system.. The molecules were represented by three types of substructural fragments, the augmented atom, the heteropath, and the ring fragments.. Of the two pattern recognition methods used to predict the activity of the test compounds the nearest neighbor method predicted 83% correctly while the learning machine method predicted 92% correctly.. The test structures and the important substructural fragments used in this study are given and the implications of these results are discussed.."
891,"The Status and Needs of Medical School Libraries in the United States This paper, prepared at the request of the National Library of Medicine, is the result of a study of the status and needs of the libraries of 86 medical schools and schools of basic medical sciences which are institutional members of the Association of American Medical Libraries and are approved by the American Medical Association. It is intended to summarize the impact of changing experiments in medical research, education and practice on the collections, serving housing, and staffs of medical school libraries."
892,"The Georgia Tech Library's Microfiche Catalog The Price Gilbert Memorial Library of the Georgia Institute of Technology has reproduced its entire card catalog on microfiche, and is updating this basic file with a bimonthly cumulated supplement produced by the Computer Output Microfiche (COM) process.. The total catalog has been placed, with in appropriate microfiche reader, in every academic and research department on campus - thereby taking the chief bibliographic record of the library to the faculty user.. Remote bibliographic access is complemented by a telephone request and delivery service which provides delivery of requested books or photocopies from the library to the faculty member.."
893,"The Frequency Distribution of Scientific Productivity. It would be of interest to determine, if possible, the part which men of different calibre contribute to the progress of science.  Considering first simple volume of production, a count was made of the number of names, in the decennial index of Chemical Abstracts  1907-1916, against which appeared 1, 2, 3 . . . . entries. Names of firms (e.g. Aktiengesellschaft, etc.) were omitted from reckoning, since they represent the output, not of a single individual, but of an unknown number of persons. The letters A and B of the alphabet only were covered. These were treated both separately and in the aggregate, with the results shown in the table and in figures 1 and 2 below."
894,"An Experiment in Index Term Frequency This paper presents an experimental study of index-term frequency as a factor in retrieval performance.. The frequency of an index term, or its ""breadth"" as it is called here, is the number of postings made to the term in a given collection.. The question is asked: Of index terms assigned to documents, which function most effectively in retrieval, the most term or popular terms, or those which are used relatively infrequently? The experiment is a retrieval experiment and uses the Cranfield-Salton data.. Breadth of indexing is varied by nonrandomly deleting terms from documents.. Retrieval output is evaluated using the Expected Search Length measure of retrieval effectiveness as well as the usual precision and recall.. The Wilcoxen Test is used to determine the statistical significance of the different indexings.. The results show that the ""optimal"" breadth of indexing is a variable, depending on user needs: if a few documents are wanted or high precision is desired, then narrow terms are more effective than broad ones; if, on the other hand, all or most relevant documents are wanted, then broad terms are better.. An argument, however, can be made for the quality of narrow terms, since when these terms are deleted precision never improves, whereas deleting broad terms always results in a higher precision.. A corollary experiment is carried out to compare two indexings of the same average breadth where one indexing consists of semantically appropriate terms - terms taken from the document title - and the other consists of merely ""reasonable"" index terms.. The result suggest that title-term indexing is qualifiedly superior.."
895,"Design Equations for Retrieval System Based on the Swets Model Swets's theory of information retrieval allows the threads of document weighting formulae, probabilistic measures of effectiveness, and management theory to be woven into a coherent pattern.. Benefits of the theory are the beginnings of a quantitative description of retrieval languages, a clear distinction between retrieval 'systems' and 'language', a recognition that retrieval performance can be tailored to suit individual needs in a systematic way, and confirmation that question Generality is a pivotal feature of the retrieval process.. The hypotheses involved are still in need of rigorous experimental testing.."
896,"Job Dimensions and Educational Needs in Librarianship This study was undertaken to meet more fully the demands for improved and expanded training of library personnel, especially at the middle and upper levels, occasioned by the rapidly changing roles and functions of libraries as they try to adapt to the vast social, economic, and technological changes currently in progress. The rise to a higher level of required skills and competencies - often new - has brought about an urgent need for improved training beyond the first professional degree at the post-master's level. The basic purpose of this research is curriculum development at the post-master's level that will equip the middle- and upper-level personnel in libraries for the changes confronting them. Although it would be possible to restructure the master's program and add the courses that this study shows a need for, that alternative has not been pursued for two reasons: a fairly stable master's curriculum is widely accepted and institutionalized and, more important, the new courses are designed for a different group of students - experienced librarians."
897,"Shawnee Mission's On-Line Cataloging System An on_line cataloging pilot project for two elementary school is discussed.. The system components are 2740 terminals, upper-lower-case input, IBM's FASTER generalized software package, and usual cards/labels output.. Reasons for choosing FASTER, software and hardware features, operating procedures, system performance and costs are detailed. Future expansion to cataloging 100,000 annual K-12 acquisitions, on-line circulation, retrospective conversion, and union book catalogs is set forth.."
898,"Classification Systems The field of documentation originated from the desire of librarians to arrange the document collection by subject areas. Mono-Dicraredical Classification systems were developed for this purpose which made it possible in each case to find a single clearly defined category for each bibliographic item. The development of modern science has brought about two principal changes in the situation:  First it is no longer enough to simply provide for the retrieval of complete bibliographic items as a unit, but rather one tends more and more to request informational details that may be contained in the book. Second, modern knowledge has become too complex and interdependent that it is no longer possible to provide a single well-defined category for the books or journal articles."
899,"Technical Scientific Information and the Efficient Application of Science The intense development of science and its immediate application in production is one of the characteristic feelings of our time. The growth of the economy now depends more and more on the speed of scientific research. One of the main tasks of the five-year plan (1971-1975) is to develop in every possible way basic and applied scientific research and to rapidly introduce their results into the national economy. The Directives of the 24th Congress of the CPSU emphasize the need to improve scientific-technical information, and to guarantee the systematic transfer to interested fields and institutions of information on scientific achievements and progressive experimentation in the areas of technology, the organization of production, and production management."
900,"The Language Barrier; a study in depth of the place of foreign language materials in the research activity of the academic community This volume presents the results of a detailed study of the place of foreign language materials in University research. In the course of our investigation, we accumulated a large amount of data on the use of published information and of library services by research workers and academic staff. Our analyses have necessarily been limited by the specific aims of the project, but we have been constantly aware that there are many other possible analyses of the same material. For this reason we have endeavoured to include in the Appendix as much of this ""raw"" data as possible and to provide in the text itself, when presenting our own analyses, as much detail as possible of the methodology and other background information necessary for any full evaluation."
901,"Language and Information Selected Essays on their Theory and Application At one time or another many authors must have faced the dilemma of whether to gather their articles published on a certain topic and republish them as a collection of essays or whether to rework them into an entirely new book. I decided in favor of the first course with regard to the articles I had written during the last fifteen years on language and information, in particular on the more technical and applied aspects, leaving for some future occasion my papers on the philosophy of language."
902,"Language and Mind The three chapters of this book are somewhat elaborated versions of three lectures, the Beckman lectures, that I delivered at the University of California, at Berkeley, in January 1967. The first is an attempt to evaluate past contributions to the study of mind that have been been based on research and speculation regarding the nature of language. The second is devoted to contemporary developments in linguistics that have a bearing on the study of the mind. The third is a highly speculative discussion of directions that the study of language and mind might take in coming years. The three lectures, then, are concerned with the past, the present, and the future."
903,"Development of the County Law Library Do you know that there are 3,071 counties and parishes and 59 county equivalents in the United States, making a total of 3,130?  Do you know that only 39 states have statutory provisions for county law libraries?  Do you know that seven states have no listing for county law libraries in the American Association of Law Libraries 1968 Directory of Law Libraries?  Do you know that Los Angeles County, California, not only has the largest county law library collection in the United States, but it also has seven branch law libraries?  These four questions readily point out the simple fact that the growth and development of county law libraries in the United States has been uneven, without pattern or standards, not only on a State-to-State basis, but on a county- to-county basis within a particular state.  A survey of the 39 state statutes relating to county law libraries reveals that there are no two states that have exactly the same method for the establishment, administration, financial support, or maintenance of a county law library."
904,"No Special Rules for Entry of Serials One of the objectives of a library catalog is to enable one to determine what books or publications by an author are in the library.. Establishment of special rules of entry for serial publications which preclude attribution of authorship defeats this objective.. The present rule 6 of the Anglo_American Cataloging Rules are the Paris Principles are criticized in this regard.. In the course of this criticism, it is shown that the presence of a generic title, the presence of the name of a corporate body within the serial publication are not valid criteria for determining authorship of a serial publication.. Furthermore, using the form of publication produces unpredictable entries for serials.. Therefore, it is proposed that special rules for entry of serials be abolished, that a serial be treated like any other work of corporate or personal authorship, including compilations and works produced under editorial direction.. This will have the added benefit of allowing consistent treatment of instances of corporate and personal authorship.."
905,"Periodicals for the Small Bio-Medical and Clinical Library Since the advent of periodical literature in the seventeenth century well over ten thousand journals have been published in the field of bio-medicine. Many of these have ceased publication; others are only of local interest. Still, approximately two thousand desirable periodicals in this field are being currently released. As research and discovery are recorded in the journal literature, the greatest asset of a scientific library is its subscription list and periodical holdings. It therefore becomes a major responsibility of such libraries to make this wealth of experimental data available to their readers. When funds are limited, the selection of a periodical collection that will best serve the most urgent needs of the reader becomes of paramount importance. A plan of highly selective purchasing must be adopted to prevent the improper use of funds. Actual needs of the library must be at hand to carry out such a plan."
906,"Libraries and Cultural Change This work is a contribution to the literature of librarianship and some parts of it may interest a wider audience. The chapters consist of a series of introductory explorations into several related fields. Some of these areas are usually included in curricula for library studies programmes, under a title such as ""The library and the community"" or ""The social background to libraries."""
907,"Libraries of the Future This report of research on concepts and problems of ""Libraries of the Future"" records the result of a two-year inquiry into the applicability of some of the newer techniques for handling information to what goes at present by the name of library work - i.e, the operations connected with assembling information in recorded form and of organizing and making it available for use."
908,"Libraries at Large This book, Libraries at Large, is itself one tangible outcome of Advisory Commission activity, representing the combined efforts of Duke University, the R.R. Bowker Company, members of the Commission and its several study groups, and many other diverse individuals within and without the library world. The resultant theme is the same one that characterized the work of our Commission from the beginning - namely, a concern that every individual in our society be provided with library and informational services adequate to his current and emerging needs. Confronting this goal requires a recognition of inevitable change, and we have questioned status quo, recognizing at the same time the differing pace and character requisite for the implementation of designs in the adaptability to change. The national interest demands simultaneous sympathy with people in pockets of illiteracy and people in the vanguards of intellectual achievement."
909,"Libraries and Librarianship in the West: A Brief History This book was written in an attempt to fill a gap. If one ignored the major historical resources in other languages (which few United States students read), notably the Handbuch der Bibliothekswissenschaft, edited by Fritz Milkau and others (2d ed., Leipzig: Harrassowitz, 1952-1957; Registerband, 1965), it was plain that the goodly company of works available did not meet all fundamental needs. The most nearly comprehensive treatment was Elmer C. Johnson's A History of Libraries in the Western World (Scarecrow, 1965), which remains in its second edition (Scarecrow, 1970) solid and attractive reading but continues as announced to cover only libraries. Its attention to librarianship is very limited; numerous important theorists are not even mentioned. Furthermore, the predominant organization by type of library hampers the analysis of crosscurrents between libraries and life and thought, particularly the development of the image of the library and librarian. The aim here has been to tie it all together.  In the present offering, ""the West"" is used conventionally: European civilization, with its Near Eastern ancestors and its Western Hemisphere progeny. The limitation is practical. To try to ""cover"" even the West may prove to be too much for one person; to go beyond would be rash. Yet an understanding of those lands ""beyond"" would be most valuable to us all. Let us hope that someone will try to provide it."
910,"Libraries and Neighborhood Information Centers It has been suggested by various librarians concerned with inner-city service that the library serve as an informational and interpersonal link between community residents and social agencies. The major question is whether it is necessary to add another agency to the already overburdened social service bureaucracy. The rationale for envisioning the library in this role is twofold: (1) the library has achieved a reputation for impartiality because it provides information on all sides of an issue and is not committed to any particular action program, community service or clientele; and (2) librarians are specifically trained to locate, organize, update and disseminate information."
911,"Libraries and the Organization of Knowledge From time to time, in the course of its historical development, a professional activity enters a new stage. This usually takes place as the culmination of a series of modifications to the practice of the art, arising out of changes in the social situation in which the profession operates. Skilled workers, sensitive to changing needs, alter or refine their practice so that it develops in tune with the progress of society itself. Descriptive accounts of new or improved methods appear in the literature; and, from time to time, a leading thinker makes a new synthesis by combining these explanations into a system, or theory, which gives a rational account of what is going on, and so prepares the way forward.  This is what Dean Jesse H. Shera has set out to do in this collection of his essays and addresses."
912,Libraries in Political Science This study undertakes to document the process and the thinking that led Leyh to his controversial professional-political activities and his widely criticized writings in his later years. Every effort has been made to present the documentary material and to analyze Leyh's reactions to political and psychological pressures without favoring any particular position. Neither a justification nor a critique of Leyh's actions is intended.
913,"On the construction and care of white elephants Although catalogue codes and standards have received much attention, there has been very little fundamental questioning of cataloguing principles and practice. Basic questions in need of investigation include: whether individual libraries need catalogues of their own stock; how far printed bibliographies could serve as a substitute; the functions catalogues are serving at present, and the actual demands placed on them; the nature of users and non-users, and the possible conflicts between the catalogue needs of librarians and non-librarians; the psychological factors of approachability and usability; whether standardization should over-rule local needs; whether catalogues should be designed for use by readers at all; the functions of printed national catalogues; the implications of increased co-operation and of the changing functions of libraries; what a catalogue entry should contain and how it should be arranged; and the possible administrative uses of catalogue data.  Mechanization has made these questions of great urgency."
914,Library and information science abstracts A new service for librarians and documentalists A survey of the events leading to the decision to replace Library Science Abstracts by a new service. Indicates the arrangement of LISA and how this will differ from LSA. Gives a brief account of the working routines for the new service.
915,"Library research at the University of Lancaster Reference has been made to work done at the University of Lancaster in recent issues of the RECORD: this article summarizes past, present and possible future activities in this field."
916,"Library Automation: Experience, Methodology, and Technology of the Library as an Information System The goal of this book, Library Automation: Experience, Methodology, and Technology of the Library as an Information System, is to provide a perspective of the library functions that have been or might be mechanized or automated, an outline of the methodology of the systems approach, an overview of the technology available to the library, and a projection of the prospects for library automation.  There is a concern in every library for the proper handling and control of a veritable flood of material and for the prompt and convenient fulfillment of service demands. That concern is matched by excitement about the possibilities for effective use of the computers and communications network in many library functions. Knowledge, the library's stock-in-trade, is being generated at an unprecedented rate and sought after with unprecedented intensity. Technology, the driving force behind the library's problems and one hope for future solution, is being advanced to unprecedented levels."
917,"Library Automation Systems This book is intended as a reasonably comprehensive discussion of library automation systems for the librarian without previous knowledge or experience in the field, and for the intelligent layman. Library automation systems, in the context of this work, are combinations of electronic data processing machines and appropriate programs and operating procedures, organized to work together in carrying out, with a minimum of human intervention, some well-defined library process. It is a field that many thoughtful observers feel has reached a certain maturity, and so deserves to have its portrait made."
918,"Library of Congress The book was built on interviews with the Library's middle managers, on discussions with working specialists in the various divisions, on conversations with and questionnaires sent to out-of-Library users, and from my own observations through almost twenty-five years in the Library's Congressional Research Service. After the text was completed, it was read by appropriate people in each department for factual content and ultimately by the staff in the Librarian's Office for their comment. At no point was there pressure to change text or conclusions - although there were plenty of good-natured suggestions on details, and nearly everyone urged a fuller description of his own particular specialty!"
919,"ISBD(S) and Title Main Entry for Serials The International Meeting of Cataloguing Experts, convened in Copenhagen in 1969 under the auspices of the IFLA Committee on Uniform Cataloguing Rules (later Committee on Cataloguing), set in motion the first major development in continuation of the success achieved by the Paris International Conference on Cataloguing Principles (1961) in the matter of the principles and general rules for entry and heading. Taking under consideration the study of ""Bibliographical Data in National Bibliography Entries"" prepared by Michael Gorman, the experts of the Copenhagen meeting set up a working group, with Jack Wells as chairman, charged with drafting an international standard bibliographic description for monographic publications. There was common agreement that the objective was the development of specifications for the necessary data elements, their order of presentation, and the punctuation to delimit them. These specifications should be designed to satisfy the needs of national bibliographies, and, with whatever judicious trimming might be desirable, the needs of the libraries of the entire world. It was further agreed that these bibliographic descriptions were to be made quite independently of the heading under which they might appear in listings. The working group succeeded in its task and brought forth its provisional ISBD(M) in 1971; the first standard edition was published earlier this year. The success of this standard is manifested by the continuing increase in the number of countries that have adopted it."
920,"Main Entry for Serials The nature of serials is such that, in both the ALA Cataloging Rules for Author and Titles Entries and the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules (AACR),there are special rules for choice of entry for serials that differ from the rules for monographs. While the Statement of Principles Adopted at the International Conference on Cataloging Principles (Paris Principles) leaves much room for interpretation and controversy regarding serials, it also provides for special rules for choice of entry."
921,"CONSER Cooperative Conversion of Serials Project The final report from the Association of Research Libraries' ad hoc Committee on Machine-Based Serials, written in January of this year, showed that of the 86 libraries which participated in the committee's survey of efforts in the area of machine-readable serials files, 64 had files containing a total of 1,723,568 titles. Twenty-two libraries reported having no files and one library indicated that it was in the process of converting its file. The cost of converting these files is approximately $1,500,000, not to mention the utilization of an incredible amount of duplicate conversion effort."
922,"Library Catalogs: their preservation and maintenance by photographic and automated techniques; a study The major conclusions and recommendations of the study which follows are:  That the catalogs of The Research Libraries of the New York Public Library be divided chronologically at the earliest possible date;  That the present (or retrospective) Public Catalog be reproduced photographically in book form;  That the future (or prospective) catalogs be produced in a combination of card and book form from a store of machine-readable data;  That a Central Serial Record be created to contain acquisition information, cataloging and holdings data, and bindery records for all serial publications in The Research Libraries."
923,"Library Education: an introductional survey Social structures have changed more quickly during   the last one hundred years than during any other equivalent   period in history. With these changes have come alternations   in the role of institutions of higher education. During   the Centennial Year we shall try to measure the need and   nature of further change and to evolve ideas that may   influence its direction.   In keeping with this idea, the Graduate School of Library Science of the University of Illinois felt that this indeed was a time propitious for holding an International Conference on Education for Librarianship. The profession as a whole and library education in particular are still quite young, but in less than one hundred years we have seen revolutionary changes. Demands have been made on the world's libraries, and in turn on the schools' training personnel for these libraries, almost too rapidly for them to satisfy. It seemed logical for library education, therefore, ""to measure the need and nature of future change and to evolve ideas that may influence its direction."""
924,"Library Education and Training The Conference on Library Education and Training in Developing Countries was arranged in order (1) to examine more closely the present facilities, curricula, and programs for training library workers in the developing countries of the world closest to Hawaii, those in East and South Asia; (2) to determine their short- and long-range needs for trained library workers; and (3) to determine their needs for additional library education and training facilities and for revised curricula. In the light of this information the Conference proposed to evaluate the assistance given in recent years by American advisors and temporary library school faculty in these countries, and then to ascertain the roles that both local library schools and their counterparts in the United States can play in serving the needs for trained library workers in these and other developing countries."
925,"Library Effectiveness This book is an experiment - in several respects. The pressures of rising publication, together with the dazzling potentialities of the electronic computer, are forcing librarians to think more quantitatively about their libraries than most of them ever have before and, simultaneously, have aroused the interest of the computer expert and the systems analyst in information storage and retrieval systems, of which the library is still the most successful exemplar."
926,"The Lending of Books to One Another by Libraries It would add greatly to the usefulness of our reference libraries if an agreement should be made to lend books to each other for short periods of time. It happens not unfrequently that some book is called for by a reader, or that in looking up the answer to a question a librarian has occasion to use a book which he finds in the catalogue of another library, but which does not belong to his own collection. The book, very likely, is one that can be replaced if lost. But it would take time to get it through ordinary channels; it might be necessary to send abroad for a copy or to wait to pick up one, if the book is scarce. In such a case it would be a great convenience to be able to borrow a book for a few days."
927,"Personal Relations Between Librarians and Readers When scholars and persons of high social position come to a library, they have confidence enough, in regard to the cordiality of their reception, to make known their wishes without timidity or reserve.  Modest men in the humbler walks of life, and well-trained boys and girls, need encouragement before they become ready to say freely what they want.  A hearty reception by a sympathizing friend, and the recognition of some one at hand who will listen to inquiries, even although he may consider them unimportant, make it easy for such persons to ask questions, and put them at once on a home footing."
928,"The Divided Catalog As early as 1905 the divided catalog was being presented as a preferable alternative to the dictionary catalog. Writing in 1958 Dorothy Grosser found that the steady stream of papers on the subject began in 1938. She reported 21 articles based on actual experience with the divided catalog. A quick check of her list discloses that all divided catalogs are not represented by articles. She recorded nine opponents of the divided catalog and six better known members of the profession reserving judgement. Lyle in his new edition of The Administration of the College Library considers it ""safer,"" rather than ""wiser"" as in his earlier edition, to await further evidence. Faced at Central Methodist College Library with a dictionary catalog which had outgrown its cabinets and which was to be expanded, a survey of catalog user opinion was undertaken to determine if some division of the catalog should be considered. Some revision of the filing would be needed anyway because of inconsistencies which had crept in, largely involving the inter-filing of subject and title entries. The following questions were asked of all users of the catalog during hours selected at random over several weeks: 1. Are you looking for a particular book or for books on a particular subject?   Were you looking under author, title, or subject? 2. What is your greatest difficulty in using the catalog? 3. How would you feel about having the subject cards in a separate file?  One hundred persons, approximately one tenth of the campus population, were questioned; 93 per cent felt that they would prefer having subject cards in a separate catalog, 5 per cent were opposed, and 2 per cent undecided. It must be admitted that the prejudice of the person asking may have influenced the way in which the question was answered - a similar survey made in 1954 by the University of Toronto showed general support for the dictionary catalog."
929,"The Trading Stamp Mentality A number of trips to the United States, to teach in library schools, have inculcated in me a variety of views about the present state of American library education. They are personal opinions - no more - but they come from one who has seen much that he admires and who believes wholeheartedly that the American spirit includes a firm resolution to change whatever is inefficient or corrupt. Otherwise, 1776 would have no meaning. The opinions do not stem directly from my experience in the five accredited schools in which I have taught, but are strongly rooted in my general observation of library education practice and my discussions with members of the library profession."
930,"Top Priority for Cataloging-In-Source After a century of public library service and progress, public libraries attract less than a third, perhaps only a quarter of the adult population, either to read and borrow books, or to look up information.  But nearly 60 per cent of the population is over 21. Currently a few large city libraries show slight decreases in annual circulation, the major measure of their usefulness. Yet, nationally, circulation and the informational use of public libraries have in general steadily increased, especially in the last decade. Possibly because the number of public, college, university, and special libraries doubled, from 13,676 reported in 1960, to 27,746 in 1968 (Publishers' Weekly, January 20, 1969). And there are more than that many school libraries."
931,Backlog to Frontlog A scheme for circulating nonfiction books without the help of the Library of Congress.
932,"The Urban Library Dilemma The American urban public library is in something of a dilemma. Relatively secure in the affections of the populace, the library is nevertheless frequently threatened by loss of income. The threats are cyclical and are associated with the local tax picture, which at the present time is notably obscure. The abortive attempts earlier this year to reduce appropriations for the libraries in Newark and New York received widespread attention both because the libraries are quite visible nationally and because the proposed cuts were preposterously unmistakable. In the eye of the politician who must find that tiny bit of safe water between the shoals of economy and those of service, the library appears to be expendable ballast to be dumped in heavy weather. In 12 years in two city libraries, I have seen almost every budget year produce a critical fight to prevent disaster from overtaking the library. I think the experience is not uncommon. Only the most extraordinary efforts keep most urban libraries from going under. Libraries seldom thrive; they survive. Periods of calm and prosperity are rare for urban public libraries in the richest nation in the world during this era of extraordinary national economic success. The paradox invites some critical self-analysis."
933,"The Library Press The deadliest disease afflicting the library press is proliferation. The kindest and most conservative estimate I am able to bring myself to make is that there are at least three times as many library periodicals in this country as we can afford or are necessary. Perhaps the most constructive single thing that could be accomplished would be to persuade at least one in three publishers of a library periodical to cease publication.  One might reasonably expect that librarians, who have done so much public wailing about the publication explosion, would be among the chief advocates and practitioners of birth control in the world of print. Instead we find them cavorting as uninhibitedly in the king-size bed of printed procreation as do the denizens of the Sodom and Gomorrah of science and technology. Just about every library of any consequence (and some of little consequence) and, almost without exception, every group or organization within the loose boundaries of our profession, decides, virtually at the moment of its birth, that it cannot survive without a publication of its own - a newsletter, a journal, some regular calling card to announce its presence to the world at large."
934,"Library Education and the Public Library A major and largely justifiable criticism of library education has always been that it is too closely tied to present practices and that it trains for current service instead of educating for growth and change. Unfortunately, the picture many faculty members have of what today's requirements for public library service are tends to be obsolete. Graduates are thus doubly handicapped. Not only do we fail to educate, we fail even to provide realistic training. At worst, we perpetuate the past and train people for tasks that are no longer central to the concerns of public libraries.  Library education, like the public library itself, will have to accelerate the pace of change or risk the fate of oblivion. Institutions that can move with the times and maintain a position of relevance to contemporary affairs will survive. Others will wither away, disappear, or be replaced by more responsive agencies. There is no shortage of prophets of doom for both the public library and for graduate library education, but there are plenty of signs of life yet in both. An article in the June 13, 1968 issue of The Reporter called ""Dust Gathers on the Public Library"" summed up nicely the apparent slow decline and loss of purpose of a once-revered institution (however, The Reporter is dead - while the public library lives on)."
935,"Crisis in Library Education A battle is currently being waged at the University of Maryland School of Library and Information Services; its outcome will influence the future of the library profession. Because of the significance of this controversy, this situation at Maryland is here brought to the attention of the profession at large.  Last fall, a group, with funding from the Office of Education, brought into being an educational program which is addressing the profession's most critical problems, those central to its survival as a viable social institution: The library profession's need to define and fulfill an important service function in the public arena; its failure to make itself relevant to other than middle-class interests in the culture; and its inavailability to contribute to the alleviation of the severe social, economic, and other inequalities which exist in the culture and which continue to deprive black Americans particularly of even minimal life opportunities."
936,"Along the Academic Way The invitation to apply for this council on Library Resources fellowship stated as one aim to break administrators loose from their desk to read, investigate, and reach for broadening experiences that might make them administrate better.  The application listed seven targets of study in the working context of university research libraries: 1) Organizational structures; 2) Management Techniques; 3) Program budgeting; 4) Use of machines, including the computer; 5) Research collection development; 6) Non-book materials in the library; 7) Out-of- building services."
937,"The Philadelphia Project The objectives of the research were: 1) to determine actual requirements for library resources by elementary and secondary grade students and to evaluate existing library resources in terms both of student needs and national standards, and 2) on the basis of this information to outline the respective roles of the school libraries and the public libraries in providing needed resources and in developing joint planning."
938,"Library Cost Analysis: A Recipe Unforgivably, time has passed since the days when the library's patron was the local monarch and cost was no deterrent. Time's passage has replaced the monarch with taxpayers or stockholders, and, concurrently, sensitivity to cost has attained stellar importance.  The causes for being unaware of costs may stem from a variety of reasons, but they cannot, in all fairness to the profession, belie an inability to perform the simple arithmetic of cost accounting. What is suspected is a lack of the few simple ground rules and the logical operations that bind them together, in short - a recipe for cost accounting and analysis.  In the following is outlined one such set of ground rules and their related procedural requirements, which have evolved and been applied with success over the past few years. It is stressed that since this set represents the findings of one library, it may not fully satisfy the specific requirements of your own shop. Therefore, feel free to adopt the ground rules to your immediate requirements. With regard to discipline, it is pretty much summed up in the six steps and five resource requirements which follow. In addition to identifying steps, requirements, and the mysterious ways of cost analysis, these ingredients are blended together in a manner which will be meaningful for your internal operations and may be significant for your library's future."
939,"The Paradoxes of Library Cooperation The need for libraries to cooperate has long been recognized, as countless articles written within the past decade will attest. Moreover, the necessity to combine forces has never been as apparent as it is today. Because the cost of self-sufficiency has become undeniably prohibitive, libraries can no longer afford to act as free agents. Voluntary library cooperation is no natural manifestation of social interaction. Rhetoric alone is a impotent agent of change. In truth, cooperative programs succeed only as long as each participant perceives the arrangement as beneficial to his institution."
940,"ISBD Its Origin, Rationale, and Implications A proper understanding of the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), a standard promulgated by the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA), requires some knowledge of how it came into existence, what reasoning prompted its development, ad what useful results can be expected from its adoption. These matters will be dealt with below, hopefully in sufficient detail to provide readers with a basis for teaching a sound evaluation of the effect of this standard when applied to American cataloging practice and in particular to LC cataloging and MARC tapes."
941,"ISBD Standard or Secret? The controversial ISBD will mean radical changes in descriptive cataloging practice if put into operation, as planned, by the Library of Congress. Users of LC catalog cards will require retraining: all reference librarians will experience an immediate and continuing demand for explanation of the new catalog cards to users; those large public and research libraries with computer-based systems will require costly modifications of computer programs. Yet the ISBD (International Standard Bibliographic Description) is destined to be implemented by the Library of Congress with the sanction of ALA but without even being considered by the recognized standards associations (ISO, ANSI), to say nothing of the other professional and information industry organizations."
942,"Pay Libraries & User Charges The battle lines are being drawn for a great debate over the emotionally and politically charged issue of how library and information services are to be funded in the coming decades. Most librarians will be on the side of ""conservatism"" and ""democracy,"" favoring the continuation of traditional modes of tax-supported public library service with information freely available to all as a matter of right. Information industry people, publishers, government officials, engineers, and even, perhaps, authors will be on the side of ""progress"" and ""profits,"" advocating a new concept of for-profit or pay libraries, user charges, and information as a salable commodity."
943,"Austerity, Technology, and Resource Sharing: Research Libraries Face the Future During the last two decades academic libraries, in parallel with their parent institutions, experienced the greatest period of growth and affluence that they have ever known. The watchword was ""more"" - more money, more books and journals, more staff, more space, and more technology. Many new research libraries were created, and those that already existed experienced unprecedented growth. Although libraries got more of everything during those years, they still could not keep pace with the growth of new fields of research, new doctoral programs, and the increasing production of books and journals. Two decades of affluence not only failed to help solve the many problems that were brought on by exponential growth - they exacerbated them."
944,"The View from the Tower of Babel A funny thing happened on the way to the biggest building boom in library history. Book collections grew faster than the new space to hold them, so when the boom was over the aggregate space problem of academic libraries was a little worse than it was at the beginning.   During the roughly eight-year span of the rise and fall of the boom, some 570 new or expanded library buildings sprang up on the campuses of four-year and graduate institutions around the nation."
945,"A Library Management Game: a report on a research project Although the use of games in professional education has become widespread only during the last decade, the method has been used in a number of fields for many hundreds of years. Its origins have been traced to simple war games, used in military training when the ""real thing"" was either unavailable or too dangerous. In more recent times, these games have become more and more sophisticated, and many now use large electronic computers to handle the complex calculations involved. Since 1956, when the first well-developed management game was introduced, the technique has spread rapidly into a wide variety of disciplines and today it is used at all levels of education, from primary school classes to courses for experienced men and women. One of the main causes of this ""game explosion"" has been the rapid development of sophisticated management techniques, such as simulation and mathematical modelling, which have been made possible by rapid advances in computer technology."
946,"Library Materials The problem investigated by the research was the development of standards for reading materials that would support the adult new reader in the exercise of his new-found skill and build the habit of regular use of the printed word. Bridging the gap between minimal literacy skills and the reading habit was proposed as essential to the purposes of the library program in helping the reader improve has basic education skills, increase his employability, and develop his potential as a citizen and gain personal satisfaction in his many adult roles. The nature of library materials best designed for this end required study in depth. The findings and conclusions derived from the research project provide basic information about the adult new reader and his reading, criteria for analysis of reading materials, and a bibliography of materials. These products of the study constitute a series of reading selection and guidance aids for use by all persons working in this area of service -- librarians, community workers, teachers, publishers, editors, and reading specialists."
947,"Library Networks The combination of computers and communications technology is a development whose time has come for libraries in the U.S.   And despite missteps and false starts inevitable in adapting the new technology for its use, libraries are now rapidly expanding telecommunications networks to serve their need to disseminate ever-expanding amounts of information in more effective ways.   It makes a good deal of sense when one considers that the library's function is to parcel out information, and that information can be forwarded electronically as easily as it can be mailed.   In fact, the logic of library networks is such that everyone is hopping on the bandwagon -- consultants, systems analysts, state agencies and a growing list of manufacturers that includes Xerox and International Business Machines. Their initial efforts are concentrated on what are basically bookkeeping tasks -- in particular, the cataloging of new acquisitions. The Ohio college Library Center, for example, provides its customers with entries for their card catalog files; and because OCLC is the first and most extensive of the networks, its approach is being closely copied by the others."
948,"Library Planning and Decision Making Systems The research project which produced this book concentrated on the problem of the design and development of statistical information systems that would provide quantitative information for effective management of university and large public libraries. Since there is an inseparable need not only for improved library statistical data systems but also for the above-mentioned frameworks for rational planning and decision making, we have devoted considerable effort to the development of analytical models that might assist library administrators in making decisions that would maximize the flow of benefits imparted to the communities the library serves. Some of the results of this model-building effort are repored in these pages."
949,"Library Practice in Hospitals According to a National Hospital Panel Survey conducted by the American Hospital Association in February 1970, 4,191 (72 percent) of the 5,820 community hospitals in the United States operated a library. This percentage falls to 60 when only hospitals of less than 100-bed capacity are considered (1,990 libraries in 3,318 hospitals). In the 4,191 libraries, one or more full-time staff members were found in only 1,054 (25 percent). In even fewer, 928, was there supervision of the library by a professional librarian. Clearly there is a massive job to be done if these libraries are to perform properly their functions of health education and patient care.  By ""community hospital"" we mean the nonfederal, short-term hospital providing general and selected special services, the hospital located at some distance from a large medical center and without teaching and research programs, such as a nursing school or internships. Though the librarians of more sophisticated teaching institutions may well profit from the study of this book, it is written primarily for an audience of untrained, probably newly employed, individuals who find themselves supervising the hospital's library and do not know where to begin."
950,"The Crisis in Cataloging A wise German librarian has linked the library administrator and the cataloger as working for the common aim of economy in work and cost coupled with better utilization of a library's resources. This aim, he thinks, is expressed in various kinds of cooperative work, of pooling interests, and of setting standards. It is to be developed prudently, he says, with the objectives setting limitations in such a way that more values will not be destroyed than are created.  This ideal he set out in a chapter entitled ""Tasks for the future."" There was a time, and not so very far back, when the library administrator and the cataloger worked side by side. In the more immediate past, however, the two have become separated, so that their closer collaboration does need to be set down as a task for the future, the immediate future at that. Many new problems of administration have served to busy the administrator, and most catalogers have had more work than enough, with the result that administrators have come to know less and less of cataloging, and catalogers have come to know less and less about general library administration. The situation now is that the administrator will be forced to pay more attention to cataloging because it has become a major problem field."
951,"The Historical Background of Departmental and Collegiate Libraries In spite of the great volume of material dealing with departmental and collegiate libraries that has appeared in library periodicals and books on university and college library administration, there has been relatively little original thought on the subject and virtually no historical treatment to provide an adequate background for solution of problems which have their roots in a former generation. Most of the literature has been either repetition of the old arguments for and against this type of library organization or statements of how this or that institution has faced its peculiar problems. Except for contemporary accounts of early American scholars describing the attempts to transplant the German seminar library to American soil and reports on a few large university libraries, there is no account of the conditions which brought about and for many years invigorated the departmental system. An evaluation of trends in the history of departmental libraries over the last three-quarters of a century should prove to be a valuable supplement to other information in the hands of surveyors and administrators who are interested in abolishing, establishing, continuing, or amalgamating departmental libraries in a given institution."
952,"Characteristics of the Research Literature Used by Chemists and Physicists in the United States The increasing growth and complexities of research libraries are natural consequences of the growth of knowledge and the increasing complexity of knowledge. Librarians have tried to amass more and more knowledge in the form of books for the benefit of the diverse interests of their clienteles. Their success in this activity has been reflected in the increasing difficulties of identifying satisfactorily what they have. The processes of cataloging, classifying, and related technical routines have become increasingly complex and expensive. The processes are of such a nature that the cost for adding each new item to a large library is, on the average, potentially if not actually, higher than that for its predecessor. The total proportion of the budgets of large research libraries that is spent for the processing of material, as distinguished from the costs of its purchase or its direct servicing, is now such as to give librarians pause for fear a day may come when nearly all the money available to large libraries will be spent in processing material, and little will be left to service the collection or to buy new books!"
953,"Characteristics of the Research Literature Used by Chemists and Physicists in The United States, Part II This is the second of two papers dealing with the characteristics of the literature used by research chemists and physicists in the United States.  The method of the study was fully outlined in th first article and will therefore not be repeated here.  The previous paper was devoted to a discussion of the importance of the literature of various subject fields to research in chemistry and physics. The remarks that follow are directed primarily to a discussion of the temporal span of the literature, the principal forms of the literature, the national origins of the literature used in the United States, and some attention is devoted to the more important serial titles."
954,"The Librarian: From Occupation to Profession? An industrial society has an open class stratification system; it offers some an opportunity to rise, but it offers no guarantee against downward social mobility. Compared to other types of societies, this one demands a wider variety of higher level skills and thus generates much pressure against the forces that in all societies tend to keep the individual in his original caste or class. Much of the resulting mobility is based on a radical change which has taken place in the occupational structure of modern industrial societies, one which neither Marx nor orthodox economists anticipated, an expansion of the demand for professional and technical skills of a high order.  Thus not only are individuals competing with one another in their efforts to rise in the class system, but occupations, too, are engaged in the same competition and may move up or down in power, prestige, or income."
955,"Interrelations among Special Librarys The present paper will first deal with some of the objectives, etiology, and requirements of the library network as it overtakes and embraces co-operation. Next, in this context of network development, a number of activities involving special libraries will be reviewed by way of illustration and example. The greatest proportion of special library interrelationships are, on the surface at least, random and informal. We shall therefore concentrate on such arrangements as have about them some measure of structure and intent. Finally, we will deduce from these examples the performance and promise which special libraries may offer to a total library network or information system."
956,"The Cranfield II Relevance Assessments: A Critical Evaluation The relevance assessments belonging to the Cranfield II document/query collection are shown to be faulty, in the sense that ""many"" relevant documents were not so identified by the Cranfield judges.. The implications of these omissions for the evaluation of information retrieval experiments based on the Cranfield collection are examined in detail..It is shown that numerical measures of retrieval effectiveness may be greatly altered bu consideration of the ""missing"" relevant documents and that a ranking of retrieval methods according to order of performance may vary as well.."
957,"An Economic Analysis of Library Benefits Libraries find it increasingly necessary to use their limited resources in the most efficient manner.. This requires the use of decision rules which permit library resources to be directed to those activities which yield the highest returns.. An effort is made to utilize part of welfare economics to suggest which groups of library users will provide the greatest return to society..  An evaluation of the traditional library functions of education, information, and leisure suggests that libraries should direct their resources toward educational activities and not toward recreation when public monies are involved.. A case can be made for subsidizing the library activities of school-age children, other explicitly involved in education, disadvantages minority groups and governmental officials and staff..  Since public and school libraries produce and distribute essentially the same services, it is an uneconomic use of the communities' resources to maintain two separate institutions, one of which imposes costs on the other as children are forced to use public library facilities due to school library inadequacies.."
958,"The Review Article: Its Characteristics and Problems The characteristics and problems associated with the review literature in the sciences were examined.. Three major classes of review articles were identified: (1) the annual review which aims to provide a systematic record of the contributions made within the previous year, (2) the critical review which selectively evaluates contributions to the solution of a common research problem, and (3) data compilations which are concerned with facts and findings rather than the opinions of the authors of papers from which the data are taken.. The role and control of the review article in medicine was described.. Over the past fifteen years, the ratio of review to nonreview articles in medicine has been on the order of 1:38.. Possible solutions to a number of problems associated with the review literature are discussed, such as the selection of articles for review..Further examination of some critical questions relating to the production and organization of reviews will have to be undertaken before the review, as a means of bringing the most significant information to its users, will be accepted as a reliable adjunct to the original publications.."
959,"Measures of Library Effectiveness Mathematical models of library operations are presented, allowing managers to estimate measures of effectiveness for a library.. These models describe the amount of use made of resources by a user in a visit, the distribution of book circulation in a collection, the dependence of circulation on time, and the effect of multiple copies on user satisfaction.. Predictions are made on the basis of the models of the consequence of breaking of central library into branch libraries.. The effect, in terms of frustrated use, of removing the least-used books from a collection is discussed, as are strategies for for duplication.. The emphasis is on facilitating getting results from models; for this purpose graphic techniques supplement the mathematical formulas.."
960,"Library Operations Research: A Process of Discovery and Justification This article begins with a discussion of the broad role of operations research (O.R.) in a society undergoing change.. The nature of O.R. terms in a library environment is then considered.. The function of models in O.R. is analyzed, the development of a model being contrasted with its formal presentation.. Criteria for good models are suggested.. This article then focuses on storage models for libraries, first considering the Dewey classification system from this perspective and then summarizing more current research carried out under the direction of the author with a grant from the National Science Foundation.."
961,"An Operations Research Study of a Variable Loan and Duplication Policy at the University of Lancaster The Library Research Unit of the University of Lancaster used an Operations Research (O.R.) approach to recommend changes in loan and duplication policies in the university library.. The ""variable"" loan and duplication policy which was developed is described and also the considerable impact of implementation.. Other libraries are now adopting this kind of policy.. The work is presented as a case study in library O.R. .. The great importance of analyzing the structure of problems is stressed and the nature and usefulness of models is described.. For the most useful results, suitable librarians should be included in the research team.."
962,"Library Objectiveness and Performance Measures and Their Use in Decision Making For optimal allocations of limited funds, it is necessary for libraries to develop measures of output.. Various forms of user exposure to documents are discussed in an effort to develop such measures for public libraries.. It is suggested that the actual method of accounting be used to compare such measures with costs, and an illustrative computation is presented.. It is shown how size of user population, amount of exposure, and costs for a given year can be estimated..Similar techniques are suggested for evaluation of library programs.. This approach is then compared with current concepts of library standards.. The paper concludes with suggestions for further research.."
963,"Catalog use in a Large Research Library Concern with the questions of when and how best to computerize the catalog of a large research library, and how to improve an existing conventional catalog, motivated a study of the utilization of the main catalog of the Yale University Library.. The study was carefully designed to provide a representative sample of catalog use.. Traffic through the catalog area was observed over a period of more than a year.. A schedule of interviews with catalog users was based on observed traffic volume by hour of day, day of week, and time of year.. More than 1,000 interviews were completed, using nonleading interviewing technique.. Information was derived on the catalog user's objective, starting clues, and university affiliation.. Search success was determined.. Follow-up studies were performed on the catalog cards and the actual books identified in successful searches.. Reasons for search failure were determined for know-item searches.. Availability and accuracy of different categories of search clues were ascertained.. Published algorithms for searching computerized bibliographic files were evaluated.. Attention is given to the feasibility of automatic construction of computerized catalogs.. Some of the available results are presented and discussed.."
964,"Efficiency Criteria for the Operation of Large Libraries It is rather surprising that behavioral scientists have not discovered libraries much sooner in their search for institutional environments suited for the testing of theoretical hypotheses. Librarians and their assistants respect research and scholarship and are inclined to go far beyond the call of duty in helping the investigator, even when they are skeptical (rightfully, in most instances) of the usefulness of such research for the improvement of their own organizations. Data and related information are necessarily treated with greater precision and discipline in libraries than in factories and most bureaucratic offices; therefore, significant results can often be obtained with smaller samples and in shorter periods of observation. People working in libraries do not feel they should curtail disclosures about basic processes. Elsewhere professional employees are obligated to preserve trade secrets from competitors or to suppress facts which might be considered scandalous by legislative committees. At least as important to an investigator is the fact that one or more libraries almost always lie close at hand - there could hardly be any more convenient institution."
965,"The Information Needs of Current Scientific Research The information demands, or information needs, of current scientific research are similar in many respects to the information needs in other forms of scholarship. But this is not true in all cases, and the focus of this paper is on the needs of the research scientists. In discussing the information needs of the scientist, I shall not limit myself to those for which library work is immediately relevant; in fact, a good part of this paper will call attention to the importance of those aspects of scientific communication that take place outside libraries and, indeed, outside literature. (There are, of course, very few aspects of scientific communication to which library work is not at least indirectly relevant.)"
966,"The Evidence Underlying the Cranfield Results An indexing or classification system should be judged by the retrieval results it produces, namely, the extent to which it brings forth relevant material and rejects the irrelevant. Thus, well-designed experiments should permit judging the relative merits of different classification schemes. This notion, although self-evident, had remarkably little impact on the field of library science prior to the 1950's. During that decade, the first controlled experiments on information retrieval were performed, and these mark a turning point in the history of classification research. For the first time, experimental procedure and the rules of scientific evidence became of critical importance to indexing and classification. It is my purpose here to review some aspects of the most notable of these experimental tests - the ASLIB Cranfield Research Project."
967,"On Improving Communication among Scientists Libraries and information services of the twenty-first century almost certainly will be the beneficiary, or perhaps the victim, of enormous technological change. High-speed search by computers, microrecording techniques, remote interrogation consoles, and great communication networks will someday place the world's knowledge at our fingertips. It is inferred by many that, through such a metamorphosis, we shall cure the information ills of our age, bring order out of chaos, and somehow contain the ""information explosion"" - or at least reduce it to a small conflagration."
968,The Ecology of Privacy The purpose of this article is to discuss the part played by the library environment in regulating interaction between people.
969,Paper Deacidification: A Preliminary Repot The purpose of this paper is to develop an approach to a practical treatment for the wet deacidification of paper in books stored in libraries.
970,"Fields of Information on Library of Congress Catalog Cards: Analysis of a Random Sample, 1950-1964 The Information Systems Office (ISO) of the Library of Congress has as its mission the development and implementation of the main automation program for the Library and the co-ordination of all LC automation efforts.  One of the primary activities in this effort is a system-development study concentrating on the central bibliographic operations, that is, acquisitions, cataloging, reference, etc. This study is now in its early stages, and it is too soon to predict the actual system that will evolve.  As an adjunct to this study an analysis of the potential uses of and problems involved in the machine processing of cataloging data was begun. One aspect of the analysis was the design of a preliminary machine- readable catalog record. The results of this work are in a report issued by the ISO as its ""Planning Memorandum Number 3."""
971,"Paper Impermanence as a Consequence of pH and Storage Conditions This article aims to provide some basic information, references to further information, and a sense of proportion about the action of hydrogen ions and storage conditions on paper. Other important causes of paper deterioration, such as oxidative degradation, biological attack, photocatalyzed degradation, and mechanical wear and tear, will not be considered at this time."
972,"Graph Model for Library Information Networks The design and study of library information networks are enhanced by the use of the concepts which have been developed by graph theorists.. In this paper we expand upon this theme, proposing a general network structure which we believe to be a good model for a wide variety of library and other information networks.. The basic concepts from graph theory are illustrated with the aid of a hypothetical Public Library Access Network (PLAN).."
973,"The Divided Catalog: A Summary of the Literature In the earliest item (1905) in the bibliography here presented, Fletcher challenges the right of the dictionary catalog to be the overwhelmingly predominant type of catalog in libraries. He questions its advocates' claim that it best meets a library's needs. He advocates a divided catalog such as the one at Amherst because, for one thing, the separate catalog can more readily be used in conjunction with bibliographies in the subject fields. We find a similar argument in the latest item in the bibliography (Harris, 1957). Fletcher's article seems to have been followed by more than thirty years of silence in the library journals on the subject of the divided catalog. During that period there were probably some divisions of catalogs at some libraries but, as Thom (q.v.) indicates, the greatest period of such activity started in 1937. Our survey of the literature on the divided catalog corroborates this since 1938 in the year in which the steady stream of papers on the subject began."
974,"Cost Survey: Cost of Ordering, Cataloging, and Preparations in Southern California Libraries It was our original intention to include the cost of book selection with the cost of ordering, as part of the total acquisition process. We also attempted to get indirect costs, such as rent and utilities. Very few of the libraries were able to supply these figures so we based our survey on direct cost only. We found from the preliminary survey that book selection statistics were extremely difficult to determine, since all the professional staff in the libraries concerned participated in book selection, with the chief librarian performing most of it. As a result, the cost of book selection was exceedingly high and threw the cost of ordering out of proportion."
975,"Why Allocate? Most academic librarians will no doubt agree with Lyle's statement that the book fund is one of the most important items in the library budget. Fewer academic librarians, however, are likely to agree with the view that in their handling of the book budget, college and university librarians for the most part have not been living up to their professional responsibilities."
976,"Cost Accounting for the Library Increasingly, librarians have felt the need for more accurate cost data. The prime reason for this need has been in the development and presentation of the budget which is the instrument used to determine and obtain the funds for the library's forthcoming fiscal period. Since libraries do not charge for the service they render their users, they must derive the funds necessary for their operations and growth from supporting bodies such as federal, state, or local governments, private institutions, and industrial firms."
977,"A Study of the Usage and Retention of Technical Periodicals Limited physical space expansion, an administrative consideration in every library, becomes a stringent factor in the planning of special libraries. While public and college libraries may have  several decades of growth possibility when they take possession of a building or area, it is indeed a fortunate industrial library whose stacks are not overcrowded after five years of establishment in new quarters. Industrial floorspace is too greatly in demand to devote more effort to the possible future growth of the library.	Weeding or storage requirements, therefore, are far more immediate considerations to the special industrial library administrators than they are to administrators of other types of libraries. The limits of expansion are usually apparent earliest in the serials collections of industrial libraries because so much current technical data is published first in scientific and technical periodicals. These collections grow rapidly. This summarization of a recent study made by one technical library in the area of space for use of technical journals has potential for other libraries."
978,"Remarks on LC Plans for Implementation of New Centralized Acquisitions and Cataloging Program under Title IIC, Higher Education Act The general purpose of my part in this program discussion is to report to you on the new program of centralized acquisitions and cataloging to be undertaken by the Library of Congress under authorization granted under Title IIC of the Higher Education Act of 1965. By this action, the Congress took two most important steps to aid libraries of higher education in the United States: (1) it fully recognized for the first time, the importance of granting Federal aid and assistance toward solving the problem of cataloging in this country; and (2) it gave the Library of Congress a clear mandate to provide new and unparalleled services for the benefit of academic and research libraries of this country."
979,"Automated Acquisitions Procedures at the University of Michigan Library In June 1965, the Acquisitions Department of The University of Michigan Library began using a computer-based system for ordering books and other library materials. This is the beginning of an over-all automated system for the Acquisitions Department and was designed with the assistance of Robert O. Kindt, Systems Analyst from the University's Office of Management Services. Preliminary work on the automated system was begun in late 1963, and in September, 1964. Mr. Kindt was assigned to the University Library on a full-time basis. After the preliminary proposal was drafted, cost and feasibility studies were made. Current (i.e., 1964) volume and costs were compared with anticipated volume and costs in 1968 and 1975 for both manual and automated systems."
980,"Facsimile Transmission in Libraries: A State of the Art Survey Facsimile transmission is the rapid transmission of printed pages from one point to another using electronic devices. All facsimile transmission methods require converting the original picture into an electrical impulse which is then transmitted over telephone lines, private lines, microwave, or a combination of these communication links. The receiving unit reconverts the electrical impulse into an exact duplicate of the original document on a screen or in the form of a hard copy."
981,"Statistics of Collection Overlap at the Libraries of the Six New England State Universities As part of a design study to specify a regional processing center for the New England state university libraries, it was required to know the percentage of collection overlap with respect to each of the 30 ordered pairs of 6 libraries. Participating states were Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. This overlap data was needed to predict the degree of joint use of cataloging information and to estimate the efficiency of collective reclassification.  The results revealed a high degree of commonality in the 6 collections, showing, for example, that a random title from one library had a 40% chance of being present in another randomly selected library. When current imprint samples were tested, the figure rose to 47%. Rhode Island's holdings were shown to be the collection of greatest duplication elsewhere."
982,"Logical Flow Charts and Other New Techniques for the Administration of Libraries and Information Centers The widespread introduction of electronic digital computer systems for information processing has produced significant advances in management theory and practice in recent years. For example, two management devices, PERT and CPM, undeveloped and impractical before computers, have been basic to the success of our outer space program. It is perhaps overlate in library development, but appropriate in this memorial to Miss Esther J. Piercy, to explore the application of new management knowledge and practice to the administration of libraries and information centers, and to sketch some directions in which research could be undertaken to benefit the management of information."
983,"Criteria for Weeding of Collections Growing library collections have focused attention upon the need for selective storage and weeding of the materials..Certain objective measures for determining which items in a collection may be retired to storage are presented, and an example of the use of such measures at Columbia University is described.. It is concluded that the criteria for weeding and storage must be selected on the basis of the goals of the institution in question and of the various patterns of use in different disciplines.."
984,"Cost Analysis Studies in Libraries: Is There a Basis for Comparison? When the Chairman of the Technical Services Cost Committee asked the three of us to summarize the findings of the Colorado study on centralized processing, I agreed. Later, I began to have second thoughts - I suppose because we were almost buried under an avalanche of data and it soon became apparent that we could not really summarize the findings of the study in one evening.  The investigation took off in tangents that had not been originally anticipated. As you have already been informed, the final report deals with such diverse topics as a faculty user attitude survey, mathematical model simulations of processing center operations, approval plan utilization, and an inter-institutional bookkeeping system, all in addition to the cost studies of acquisitions and cataloging in nine libraries."
985,"The Bibliographer in the Academic Library Academic libraries, in their quest to secure and make available library materials necessary to support instructional and research programs, are finding it necessary to rely upon librarians functioning as book selectors.. The term bibliographer (frequently applied to these selectors) is gradually taken on new meaning in library service.. The role of the bibliographer is changing to include (besides book selection) new duties and responsibilities such as advanced reference, research work, instruction, and liaison duties between teaching departments and the library.. In addition, academic library organization is gradually being affected by the increasing use of bibliographers.."
986,"MEDLARS: A Summary Review and Evaluation of Three Reports The MEDLARS (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System) system at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) has over the past few years been one of the most significant and one of the most publicized automated bibliographic information retrieval systems. Over two hundred articles on it have appeared in American newspapers and popular magazines, in specialized medical journals throughout the world, and in a variety of library journals. The publicity that has attended this project has, in a way, been unfortunate, for it has presented an exaggerated picture of the system and its accomplishments which has only made the sceptics more skeptical; and it has obscured in part the examination of MEDLARS' real accomplishments. There has to date been very little careful outside analysis and evaluation of MEDLARS. Over 50 percent of all the articles listed in the bibliography in Austin's report, and virtually all the substantive ones, represent the work of persons closely connected with NLM or the development of the MEDLARS system. Their judgement on the effectiveness of the system and its overall value cannot help but be colored by this connection."
987,CIP in Mid-1970 The history of the near-success of the 1958-59 experiment with cataloging in source and the subsequent refusal of the library community to accept its failure are punctuated by data from a recent survey of 591 libraries in IS categories regarding attitudes toward prepublication cataloging..
988,"Report on Library of Congress Plans for Cataloging in Publication When we were asked in October 1969 for an expression of attitude about a renewal of cataloging-in-source, our response was positive. We were interested and we were determined to make it succeed. Profiting from the experience gained in the 1958-59 experiment, we specified that:   1. A survey of libraries be conducted;   2. a survey of publishers be conducted;   3. an expert investigator be secured;   4. there must be adequate funding;   5. there be adequate space; and,   6. that those factors be eliminated which represented the most    crucial problem areas in the 1958-59 experiment."
989,"An Analysis of the Universal Decimal Classification as a Term System for Nuclear Science and Technology Explores the possibilities of merging the terminology of the Universal Decimal Classification System with that of a term system - Engineers Point Council's Thesaurus - for nuclear science and technology.. Concludes, from the evidence presented, that UDC can be effectively used as a term system.. Proposes that the two systems coordinate the terms and merge a major thesaurus (EJC) with an effective classification scheme of international scope (UDC) to provide a needed tool in the area of classification and documentation.."
990,"Automation Activities in the Processing Department of the Library of Congress This article reports on activities relating to the automation of technical processing at the Library of Congress.. The master guidelines for automation of the LC core bibliographic system are discussed, and the following individual projects are described: Machine_Readable Cataloging (MARC) and related activities; RECON Pilot Project; format recognition; multiple use MARC system; Order Division project; automated process information file; subject headings project; filing program; book catalogs; and the Crad Division project.."
991,"Filing Arrangement in the Library of Congress Catalogs New filing rules have been developed for the catalogs of the Library of Congress to ease the tasks of filers and users and to pave the way for computer-assisted filing.. This article discusses preliminary considerations about the functions of large bibliographic files,the complexities of cataloging, the interaction between users and catalogs, and ways to simplify arrangements.. The assumptions and principles that underlie the proposed rules are stated, and their organization and anticipated use are described.. An abridged version of the rules is illustrated by an extended example.."
992,"Cataloging Nonbook Materials: Mountain or Molehill? The development of cataloging codes for nonbook materials in surveyed, with particular attention devoted to the absence of stated objectives, the problem of the integrated catalog, terminology, and examples, and some of the complications caused by the blanket use of title main entry.."
993,"An Integrated, User-Oriented System for the Documentation and Control of Machine-Readable Data Files The purpose of this paper is to offer a solution to the problems of documentation and bibliographic control of machine-readable data files.. It is a solution which attempts to meet both the needs of the data user and the data librarian.. It is design to make readily feasible the conversion completely or in part to a computer-based operation and to tie in directly to an information retrieval system in the future.. The four elements of this documentation and control system are:standard catalogue entries, data abstract and data description forms, content documentation codebooks, and records of physical and logical characteristics of the data set.."
994,"Measuring Reader Failure at the Catalogue In an effort to develop a simple method for librarians to employ to measure and evaluate author catalogue use, the Library Management Research Unit tested a survey design in four varying libraries.. The reader was asked to note details of items not found in the catalogue, the source of the reference, and his status.. The items were then checked by library staff to discover the cause of ""failure"".. Library staff interviewed samples of catalogue users to determine the overall rate of ""failure"", the cooperation (with ""Catalogue Query Slips"") rate, and the action readers proposed to take in order to obtain the item(s) not found in the catalogue.."
995,"""Early Warning"" Generic Medium Designations in Multimedia Catalogues The much-favored ""early warning"" generic medium designation is discriminatory, functionally inefficient, and out of line with the national and international acceptance of AACR.. A specific designation, placed with the collation, is preferable on all these grounds; and there are better ways of giving an ""early warning"".."
996,"International Developments in Cataloging The IFLA Committee on Cataloging has been at work since 1954 to establish international standards for cataloging and bibliographic records; it was responsible for the International Conference on Cataloging Principles, Paris, 1961, and and the International Meeting of Cataloging Experts, Copenhagen, 1969.. In recent years there have been increasing demands from national cataloging bodies and bibliographic agencies for uniformity in codes and practices, and in consequence there has been more willingness to make national concessions in order to reach international standards.. The IFLA Cataloging Secretariat was established in 1971 to assist this trend by co-ordinating work, promoting new projects and acting as a liaison center.."
997,"The Ohio College Library Center The Ohio College Library Center is a regional library network.. Its on-line shared cataloging system has been operational since 18 October 1971,and utilizes cathode ray tube terminals located in the center's fifty-three member libraries.. These terminals are connected to the Sigma 5 computer in Columbus by a multiple line, multiple party synchronous transmission telephone network.. Between January and June 1972 the system operated at an annual rate of 500,000 works cataloged and over 3,400,000 catalog cards produced .. These cards are individualized to fit the requirements of each member and are produced in packs designated for particular catalogs.."
998,"The Other Half of Cataloging The authors investigate the impact of a bibliographic retrieval/card production system, such as the Ohio College Library Center (OCLC), with special attention to its role in cataloging.. Activities required at the local level to make the LC card a functioning component of the catalog are described.. The characteristics of the ensuring workload are examined, along with methods of accomplishing it.. These activities are seen as a factor in the persistence of backlogs.. The design of OCLC, because of the immobility of the terminal and the absence of the catalog from the data base, by-passes this workload, leaving the local library to accomplish it by the method of its choice, as before, or to leave it undone.."
999,The Impact of International Standardization on the Rules of Entry for Serials The major provisions of the International Serials Data Systems and the International Standard Bibliographic Description for Serials are presented and related to present rules of entry for serials as detailed in the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules..